or 

PE 1109 
.A56 
Copy 1 




Class J?Eiioa 

Book— A-5£ 



i 






f 



INSTITUTES OF GRAMMAR, 



AS APPLICABLE TO THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY 



SYSTEMATICALLY ARRANGED, AND BRIEFLY EXPLAINED, 

To which are added some Chronological Tables. 
BY 

JAMES ANDREW, LL. D. 



Quicqiad pr&cipies, esto brevis : ut cito dicta ' 
Percipiant aninU dociles, teneantque fideles. 

HOR. 



LONDON: 
PRINTED FOR BLACK, PARBURY, AND ALLEN, 

LEADENH ALL-STREET. 
1817. 

Price 6*. 6d. in plain Binding. 



<♦" 



The Reader is requested to take the trouble of correcting the following Errata. 

Page 32, last line, for Preface read Page. 64 
34, line 21, dele " These signs are." 

49, line 34, for (wjo/^iyaj read a-ui^oiAva; and for w^emka read ir^otreriSet 

50, line 7, for leng-thening read length-ening 

68, line 39, for Brother— , Cousin— , read Brothers— , Cousins— 
70, line 23, for Vhe read The 

79, line 17,/or lying a read a lying . - 

80, line 24, for as between read or between 
line 34, for friends read friend's 

98, line 27, for two read too 



Plummer and Brewis, Printers, Love-Lane, Little Eastcheap. 



PREFACE. 

THE Goths, an ancient and a celebrated race of men, were remarkable for their 
bravery, generosity, and genius for learning. Their history, of which very 
scanty remains are left, commences, according to Herodotus, with the labours 
of the Grecian Hercules, who is identified by Sir Isaac Newton with Sesac or 
Sesostris King of Egypt, who flourished B. C. 1050 years. These Goths, whom 
Herodotus has spoken of, inhabited less or more of the northern parts of 
Europe, from the Euxine to Hie Baltic Sea; and the rivers Danube and Rhine 
appear to have been their natural boundary on the south. They came originally 
out of Assyria, and had various names at different times, and in different places, 
as Cushites, Cutheans, Getae, Massagctae, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Maesogoths ; 
but the common name given to them by the Greeks was that of Scythians*, the 
• letter s being sometimes a gratuitous prefix to the consonant c hard, or &, in 
-^the Greek language. — It would appear from a few scattered hints in the writings 
> of the Apostle Paul, that amongst his early converts to Christianity in Greece 
, were some principal persons out of Scythia, who had resorted thither on either 
id literary or commercial pursuits. These undoubtedly carried back, about A. D. 65 
Or 66, into their own country, some parts of the holy Scriptures written in 
Greek. When, in process of time, the Greek language was less known in 
Scythia, and the intercourse with Greece was impeded by the mutual wars and 
jealousies between the Romans and the Gothic nations, the New Testament was 
translated out of Greek into Gothic, about A. D. 300, by Wulphilas: which 
circumstance proves two things; first, the continued success of the gospel; 
and secondly, that beyond the pale of the Roman empire it was not unlawful to 
read the Bible in the vulgar tongue. The early conversion of a few Scythian 
chiefs to Christianity accounts most easily for the favourable reception and the 
kind protection which the Jews experienced from that nation, in the year 70, 
when they were driven from their own country by the Romans, and their 
capital with its temple were rased to the ground. It also illustrates the 
meaning of our Saviour's exhortation, when he says, " Pray ye that your flight 
be not in winter:" for the winters in Judea are not commonly severe, if 
shepherds might there openly watch their flocks by night in winter; as 
importing, " pray ye that ye may not encounter the inhospitable snows of 
Scythia, and that your flight thither be not in winter; for ye will not remain 
safe within the boundaries of the Roman empire, in Egypt, in Greece, in 
Parthia, nor in Judea." And it is acknowledged by the modern Jews that 
Scythia was the country to which the great body of their nation fled for refuge 
from the fury of the Romans, which probably would not have been so happily 
the case, but for our Saviour's previous admonition, and for the preparation 
made for it in due time, by the providential conversion of a few Scythian chiefs 
to Christianity. Hence, to this day, the Jews prevail more in Prussia, Poland, 
Germany, and the northern parts of Europe, than in any other part of the 
world. Hence too it would appear that the preservation of the Assyrian empire, 
through the preaching of the prophet Jonah, for a time at least, until it should 
be able to plant out and protect some Scythian colonies that might afterwards 
grow into an independent nation, able and willing, and in gratitude bound, to 
protect the Jews in their greatest distress, was a great and miraculous 
interference of Providence in behalf both of Jews and Scythians. — There is 
reason to believe that the Gothic and Sanscrit languages were originally the 
same, and that the subsequent differences, which prevailed between them, 
amounted to little more than what usually takes place between sister dialects. 
It has also been credibly asserted that Sanscrit was the language spoken at the 
court of Nineveh during the greatness and prosperity of the Assyrian empire, 
and that the Greek and Persian languages were derived from it. Jonah was 
probably a native of Tarsus in Cilicia, and spoke two languages, Hebrew his 
national tongue, and Ionic Greek, his native tongue, much the same in those 
days as the Assyrian. Aud Paul the Apostle uses the terms Barbarian and 
Scythian antithetically, which shews that, in his judgement, and in the general 
opinion of the world, the Scythian language was not essentially different from 
the Greek — It follows, therefore, that the Gothio language is as old as the 
Sanscrit, that is, probably, as the confusion of tongues at Babel. 

Sanscrit is now the language of the learned in India, as Latin is of the learned 
in Europe. And it is remarkable that these two became dead languages about 
the same period, upwards of twelve hundred years ago. 

* Herodotus says that the Scythians were by themselves called Scolotes. If the name Goth 
be derived, as is commonly supposed, from good, occasionally synonimous with bonny, might not 
Herodotus have mistaken bony for bonny, as Scolotes is clearly derived from Skeleton? It is 
remarkable too that, in I*atin, a? signifies either the countenance or a bone. 



iv PREFACE. 

The very learned Hickes, in his Thesaur. 
from the Gothic the following languages. 

Gothic 



Linguar. Septemtrional .^deduces 




German 



Icelandic, Norwegian, 
Swedish, Danish 



Belgic, Frisic, English, 
and Scotch 



With respect to the Scotch, it is probable, in the absence of written records, 
that in rery early times the West Goths from Denmark or Jutland invaded the 
Eastern side of Scotland, and having conquered the Celtic inhabitants, drove 
them westward into the highlands, or into Ireland, as the Celtic names of places 
all over the country, where Celtic or Erse is not spoken or understood, do still 
abundantly testify. These West Goths retained in their new settlements their 
ancient appellation, of which they were proud, but which sooner or later was 
contracted into 'St Goths or Scots. The Scottish dialect indeed is clearly 
but little removed from the Gothjc and Anglosaxon. 

The Anglosaxons, who were manifestly a Gothic nation, or of Gothic 
extraction, first landed in Britain by invitation of the natives in the year 450, 
and others following afterwards, they in the space of two hundred years firmly 
established themselves, their name, language, and laws, in their new settlements. 
The subsequent successes of the Danes could not in any considerable degree 
have altered the dialect which the Saxons had introduced, as in those early 
times the Danish and Saxon languages were pretty much alike. The Norman 
conquest, as it is improperly termed, in the year 1066, effected only a change 
of dynasty, with the addition of some feudal customs ; but the Anglosaxon 
language and laws still continued in force, as they do in the main to this day, 
those laws being now known under the denomination of the Commou Law of 
England. It is chiefly to the invention of printing, and the diffusion of 
knowledge since 1450, and not to iuvasions and other military achievements, 
that we are to ascribe the differences that have arisen between the old Saxon 
and the English. The English language, therefore, ought not to be considered 
as a heterogeneous jumble, a corrupted jargon, an undisciplined farrago of 
various languages from north, south, east, and west : but, as in truth it is, the 
remains of an ancient and highly cultivated language, augmented in modern 
times by many literary terms, borrowed mostly from the Greek and Latin. 

It requires no other panegyric thaa its own importance and utility to recom- 
mend the study of Grammar. Can law6 be understood, or promises bind, can 
history teach, or religion warn, can truth or conviction have any existence, 
where language admits of various meanings and constructions ? The easiest 
method of learning the principles of Grammar is undoubtedly the best, and the 
fittest time is the earliest possible. An English Grammar adapted to the several 
ages, capacities, circumstances, and prospects in life, of youth in general, has 
long been wanted. The plan of the following treatise is new in several respects, 
and if the labour and pains bestowed on it shall be found to diminish those of 
the Teacher, and to accelerate the progress of the Pupil, and to encourage a 
«pirit for reading and enquiry amongst youth in general, the Author will be 
happy in having contributed in his mite towards the advancement of learning, 
and the improvement of the rising generation. 

A few blank pages at the end of this work have been dedicated to the too 
much neglected study of ancient chronology, according to the system of the 
holy Scriptures, which the author has found much delight and satisfaction in 
traeing out, and which, it is presumed, the young student will find no less 
pleasure iu carefully perusing. 



Addiscombe House, 
24th April, 1817. 



ELEMENTS, $c. 



INTRODUCTION. 



^_ RAM MAR is the art of speaking and writing correctly, 
and its rules are deduced from the practice of the most approved 
speakers and writers in any language. 

I. Orthography explains the names and uses of the seve- 
ral characters that occur in writing, the nature and power of 
letters, and the formation of syllables and words from simple 
sounds and letters, 

II. Etymology arranges the several words of a language 
into classes, and explains the nature and properties of each 
class. 

1. Etymology, in a more strict sense, enumerates and de- 

fines the several parts of speech. 

2. Accidence teaches the inflections which belong to the 

declinable parts of speech. 

3. Derivation treats of the formation of derivative from 

primitive words. 

4. Resolution, or Analysis, is the art of readily referring 

to all the rules of etymology, 

III. Syntax, or Construction, teaches the arrangement, 
connection, and dependence of the several parts of a sentence. 

1. Concord shews the manner in which the accidents of 

one word agree with those of another, 

2. Government teaches in what manner the accidents of 

one word depend on the property of other words, 

3. Position orders the several parts of a sentence aright, 

or according to sense, idiom, and propriety. 

IV. Prosody teaches the use of emphases in reading; also 

the rules of versification.* 



• Grammar is divided into four parts, Orthography, Etymolosry, Syntax, and Prosody. Of these, 
Etymology aad Syntax adroit of several subdivisions, as above. 



Iable I.] ELEMENTS OF ORTHOGRAPHY. [Characters 



ALPHABET. 

Roman Characters. 

Capitals.— A BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. 

Small Letters. — a bcdefghijklmnopqrfstuvwxyz. 
Double Letters.— <b ce a if ii ffi fl ffl fb ih fi fii ik fl ffl ff it &. 

Italic Characters. 

Capitals.— A BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. 

Small Letters. — a bed ef g k i j k I m n o p q r J s t u v w x y z. 

Old English Characters. 

Capitals—®. B©D®j?(g^3fmiL^^a)3P^E«®eaa2auJ^ 

Small Letters.— & fcc&efg'fMJ&lxnnopqrfatutotojCHj* 



POINTS, ACCENTS, MARKS, AND OTHER CHARACTERS. 

Points or Stops ,;:.?! 
Accents '" w ~ " ' 

Vfarks § % ts° ()[]{} * n *** A 

References, as t 4- i II * 

Arithmetical Signs + 7 — or 75 , X or . , -f- or ,::::, >/ 

Roman Notation I. II. HI. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. L C. D. M. 
Arabian Digits 1234667 390 

chemical Characters I rn m.^^ . ?. 

Vpothecaries Weight tr> 3 3 9 gr. fs. 

Geographical Marks ° ' " 

12 Signs of the Zodiac <r % n s il "J^ Itl ^ - ^ 

Planetary Characters O I> 2 ? $ 6* 1£ I? # * 



COMMON ABBREVIATIONS. 

A.B -A. C.— A.D.— A.M.— A. R.— B.— B.A.— B.C.— B.D.— B. V.— C. 

C.C.--C.C.C.-C.P.S.— C.R.— C.S.— D.— D.C.L.— D.D.— E.— F.A Sor A.S.S.- 

t.R.S.— F.K.S.E.-G.R.— I.H.S.— J.D.— J.R.— K.~ L.— L.D.— LL.D.— L.S. 

— M. — vJ. A.—M. D.— M. P.— MS.— MSS.— N.— N. B.— N. S.— O.— O. S.— 

P.— P.M.— P.S.— Q.— R.S.— S.— S.A.— ?.N.— S.S.S.— SS.T.P.— V.— W.— Abp.- 
\dmis.— Agt.— A p.— Aug.— Bart.— Bp.— Capt.— Cent.— Ch.— Cit.— CI.— Co.— 
Cochl.— Coi.— Cong.— Cr. — Cur. — Curt.— Cwt. — Deut.— Do.— Dr.— Dum.— 
ii\h,.— Knii.- Pp.— Esq —Ex. — Exp. — Feb. — I r.— Gen. — Genmo. — Gent.— 
Ilhd.— Ilonble.— ja.— Jac— Jno.— Km.— Knt.— Ld.— Lp.— Ldp.— Lt.— Lieat.- 

Ur.— Mrs. —Messrs.— No.— lit. Hon.— Rt. Wpful.— aev.— Sr.— St.— Xian.— 
Xmas.— a.— aaa.— e. g.— gr.— h. s. — id. — i- e.— ffi — lib.— m.— n. 1.— oz.— p. 
I . a?. — q. d. — q. 1. — q. s. — scil. — v. — vid. — viz.— ye. — yn. — ys. &c. 



Sounds] ELEMENTS OF ORTHOGRAPHY. [Table 11 


ja 2 


Sound- r> , i 




Sounded 




Alpha bet »< 


33 j Iperlyin 


sounaca va- 
riously in 




properly 
in 


Sounded variously in 


Sounds, 
32. 


f a 


name 




r ai 


fail 


plaid, again 


a inrkthei 






fall 






au 


taught 


laurel, hautboy, aunt 


a fall 






fat 


far 




aw 


brawl 




a fat 




e 


me 






ay 


day 




e me 






yes 




s 


ei 


vein 


reprieve, forfeit 


e met 






met 


race 


a, 


eu 


feud 




i pin 




i 


fine 




3< 


ew 


dew 




o no 






pin 




D 


ey 


bey 


key, alley 


o not 


i 




fin 


first 


& 


oi 


foil 




u bull 


h 





no 




- 


00 


food 


floor, flood, foot 


u tub 






prove 




n 


ou 


bound 


you, cough, thought, 


b bay 






love 






ow 


brown 


snow [rough, through 


d day 






not 


for 


toy 


j°y 




f for 




Li 


mute 




r aa 


Canaan 


Baal 


v van 






bull 






ae 


aenigma 




g g° 






tub 


bury, busy 




ao 


gaol" 




h hill 




y 


my 






ea 


fear 


bear, meadow 


k kind 






lyric 




f 


ee 


deep 




1 lily 




l 


system 




^ 


eo 


people 


leopard, dungeon 


m may 




'c 


civil 


ocean 


.§, 


ia 


carriage 


filial, vial 


n nay 




f 


for 


of 


3 


ie 


grief 


die, sieve 


P P^e 




I 


rage 




H 


oa 


boat 


abroad 


r run 




hill 


/jour 


1 


oe 


foetus 


oeconomy, hoe 


s so 




J 


join 


hallelujah 


1" 


ua 


guard 


assuage 


l zeal 


■5 


1 


"lily 


psami 




ue 


guest 


cue. quench, antique 


t tuft 




m 


may 


comptroller 


■■ ' 


ui 


guide 


guilt, fruit, languid 


w will 


n 


nay 






uy 


buy 


obloquy 


y ye 


r 


run 


third [siou 




we 


answer 


swerve 


ig ring 


o 


s 


so 


as, isle, pas- 




-WO 


sword 


swollen 


sh show 




V 


van 




& 


r eau 


beauty 


beau 


ih thine 




w 


wish 


a:rong 


K 

| 


ieu 


adieu 




th thin 




X 


fox 


exist, Xenc- 


iew 


view 




zh leisure 




y 


ye 


[phon 


jjj < 


iou 


precious 


abstemious 






z 


zeal 




uai 


quail 








b 


bay 


debt 


g, 


uea 


squeak 








c 


can 


victuals 


gi 


uee 


squeeze 








d 


day 


fixed or fixt 


N 


I eye 


eye 






~ 


o- 
6 


g° 


sign 




eh 


much 


scheme, schism, chagrin 




^k 


kill 


/might 


1 
5 


gb 


laugh ' 


ghost, fight 




tt p 


pipe 


cupboard 


nk 


ring 






h 


queen 


conquer 


Q < 


thank 






l< 


tuft 


nation 




ph 
sh 
th 


physic 

show 

thine 


nephew, phthisis 










» 


1th 


thin 


thyme 




lie'narks. — 1. Tlie IjuoIisii alphabet contains twenty-six letters, of which seven are 


vowels, viz. 


a.e, I, o,u.y,w, and nineteen consonants, viz.6,c, d,f,g,h,j,k,l,m, n,p, q, r,s, t, v. 


x,z. Also ~u. 


and y, at the beginning of a -word or syllable, are accounted consonants. — 2. The cot 


isonants are 


divided into eight mutes, viz. b, c, d, g,k,p, q, t; and eleven semivowels, J', h,J, I, > 


7i, ??, r, s, v, 


'•, z ; to which last add c and g soft, and w and y not used as vowels. — 3. The nmt< 


*s are subdi- 


vided into pure mutes, p, t, k, and semimutes b, d, aud g hard. — 4. The semivowels / 


m, n, r :ire 


named liquids; and from the mutes b, c, d, g, k, p, q, t, are formed the aspirates v, 


ch, th, gh. 


kh, f, quh, th; but the aspirations ch, gh, kh, and quh, which are one aud the sa 


me, are not 


familiar to an English ear. — 5. The English Alphabet is imperfect, the vowels zu and i, 


, and conso- 


Hants c, q, and .r being superfluous, and other simple sounds, both vowels and cods-mi 


ants, having 


no distinct characters to represent them. A perfect alphabet would contain thirty-tw 


-o letters, as 


in the last column of the above table, of which ten letters would be vowels; and the 


twenty-two 


others, consonants. In this case the mutes would be p, t, k ; the semimutes b, d, anc 


g-hard: th* 


liquids I, m, ?i. r, ??<r; the aspirates, f, v.h.th haTd.th soft: ami theofhersemivowels.s, z 


, w.y, sh, zh. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



DEFINITIONS. 

I. Spelling rs the art of reducing words to syllables, and 
syllables to letters. Reading is the converse of spelling. 

II. A Letter is a visible sign of an articulate sound. 

1. A Vowel, or Monopthhong, is a letter that makes a full 

and perfect sound by itself. 

2. A Diphthong, or Proper Diphthong, is a sound com- 

pounded of the sounds of two vowels. 

3. An Improper Diphthong is the meeting of two vowels, 

whereof only one is sounded. 

4. An Improper Triphthong is the meeting of three vowels, 

of which only one or two are sounded. 

5. A Consonant is a letter which either cannot be at all 

sounded, or can only be imperfectly sounded, without 
a vowel. 

6. Mutes are consonants which cannot be at all sounded 

without a vowel. 

7. Semivowels are consonants which can only be imper- 

fectly sounded without a vowel. 

8. Liquids are semivowels which readily coalesce in sound 

with other consonants. 

III. A Syllable is any one complete sound. 

1 . A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable. 

2. A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables. 

3. A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables. 

4. A Polysyllable is a word of two or more syllables. 

5. The Antepenult is the last s} r llable but two. 

6. The Penult is the last syllable but one. 

7. The Termination is the last syllable, or sometimes the 

last letter, or last two letters of a word. 

IV. A Word is an audible and articulate sign of thought. 

1. A Primitive Word, Theme, or Root, is that whose 

Etymology cannot be traced backward in the language 
to which it belongs. 

2. A Derivative Word is that which has a theme or root 

in the language to which it belongs. 

3. A Simple Word, whether primitive or derivative, is that 

which has but one radical meaning, as me, my. 

4. A Compound Word is that which is composed of two or 

more simple words, as myself, whatsoever. 

5. Homotonous words are words which resemble each 

other in pronunciation, but differ in signification. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 5 

6. Synonimous words are words which resemble each 

other in signification, but differ in pronunciation. 

7. The Homonymy of a word is the various senses in 

which it is used. 

8. The Grammatical or .Proper Sense of a word is its real 

or literal meaning. 

9. The Rhetorical or Figurative Sense of a word is a bor- 

rowed or imaginary signification which it assumes. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 

1. Monosyllables generally terminate with a single conso- 
nant ; the terminations^ //, and ss, .preceded by a single vowel, 
are excepted. 

2. Y before an assumed termination beginning with any 
vowel, except i, is changed into i ; y between two vowels, or 
preceded by a vowel, is not changed. 

3. Derivatives, before assumed terminations beginning with 
a vowel, reject silent e final of their primitives. 

4. Derivatives, after c and g soft, and before assumed ter- 
minations beginning with a consonant, retain the silent e final 
of their primitives. 

5. Derivatives, on assuming a termination beginning with a 
vowel, double the accented final consonant of their primitives. 



RULES FOR DIVIDING WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

1. If two vowels come together, and do not make a diph- 
thong, they must be divided, as ru-in, li-on. 

2. Two of the same consonants must be parted, as ab-bot, 
ad-der. 

3. A single consonant between two vowels must go to the 
latter, as ba-con, ma-ny ; except x and z, as ex-ist, haz-drd. 

4. A single vowel between two consonants must go to the 
former in primitive words, as parsi-mo-ny. 

5. Grammatical terminations make syllables by themselves, 
as instruct-ed, lead-er, teach-est, hear-etk, hear-ing, so-cial, par- 
tial, Persian, Ve-ne-tian, passion, na-tion; there are a few r ex- 
ceptions, as re-joi-ceth, en-ga-ging. 

6. Compound words should be reduced to their component 
parts, as with-ont, un-tru-ly. 

7. Consonants, especially liquids," that readily coalesce, 
should go together in the same syllable, as de-throne, con-tem- 
plate. 

8. Syllables generally begin with consonants, and not with 
vowels. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. 



1. It is proper to begin with a capital letter the first word of 
every sentence, the first word of every line of poetry, and the 
first word of every verse in the Bible. 

2. The pronoun I, the interjection O! and the first letter of 
every proper name, are always to be made capitals. 

3. Adjectives derived from .proper names, and substantives 
denoting power or excellence, generally require a capital at the 
beginning, as the British Navy, the Iloyal Society. 

4. Quotations, examples, and apostrophes, after a colon, 
point of interrogation, or point of admiration, begin with a 
capital. 

5 Capitals are to be used only at the beginning, and never 
in the middle or end of words, unless the whole word be written 
with capitals, as in title pages, and a few other instances. 

6. The use of capitals in title pages, remarkable phrases, 
law terms, medical prescriptions, abbreviations, and the like, 
can only be learned by reading and observation. 



RULES FOR THE USE OF POINTS. 

1. The Comma ( , ) serves to connect words with one another, 
after the manner of a conjunction; or to distinguish the several 
parts, or clauses of a sentence, after the manner of a parenthe- 
sis. The grammatical construction of sentences, and even the 
sense, may frequently be changed by altering the position of 
the comma. 

2. The Semicolon ( ; ) serves to connect and unite sentences, 
which in sense and construction have an intimate connexion 
with one another. It is general!}- placed between cause and 
effect ; premises and induction or conclusion ; similitude or con- 
trast, and the object compared. 

3. The Colon ( : ) serves to connect and unite sentences, and 
to supply the place of a semicolon and conjunction. It is 
usually placed nearer the end than the beginning of a sentence, 
and is put before examples, quotations, and pithy observations. 

4. The Period ( . ) marks the close of a sentence. 

5. The Point of Interrogation ( r ) is used after a question. 

6. The Point of Admiration or Exclamation (!) is used after 
addresses, invocations, and as a sign of emotion or surprise ; it 
also accompanies interjections. 3 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



DIRECTIONS FOR READING WELL. 



1. Recollect, when you read to please or instruct others, that 
vour own instruction and amusement become only secondary 
considerations. 

2. If you understand what you read, it will be easy to guide 
the minds of your hearers into an understanding of the same, 
and to read with propriety. 

3. Let the chief excellence of your pronunciation consist in 
plainness and propriety, avoiding all affectation and vulgarity. 

4. Elevate your voice so as to be heard by the more distant 
part of your audience, but not to exceed such a pitch as may 
be natural in itself, and agreeable to the whole audience. The 
voice in reading should never sink below the ordinary tone of 
conversation. 

5. In public speaking let your voice be rather strong than 
w r eak, your utterance rather slow than quick, your rhetorical 
emphases rather few than many, and your gesticulation languid 
rather than violent. 

6. Study rather to inflame the minds of your hearers by your 
own moderation, than by an intemperance of voice and action 
to overwhelm their understanding. 

7. It is natural that loudness and slowness of voice should 
accompany each other in reading ; and in like manner lowness 
and quickness. 

8. The pauses in reading are regulated partly by the mean- 
ing, and partly by the use of stops. The comma is the shortest 
pause, the semicolon is twice as long, the colon thrice as long, 
and the period four times as long. There is a sort of imper- 
ceptible pause between all words, however closely connected. 

9. Pronounce every syllable fully and distinctly, and let the 
final consonants be distinctly heard. 

10. In general, the pronunciation of a discourse in public 
ought to be grave in the beginning, forcible in the middle, and 
animated towards the close. 

11. Dishonour not your own eyes, nor the ears of your 
hearers, by reading compositions that are impious, seditious, 
nonsensical, quibbling, querulous, visionary, or enthusiastic. 
Truth requires no support from human weakness. 

12. Peculiarity of manner in delivery is always allowable to 
a certain degree. A provincial or vulgar pronunciation, dis- 
torted looks, untoward gestures, and every thing that betrays 
distraction, timidity, or levity of mind, ought to be avoided by 
those who covet just applause. The first requisite in public 
speaking is modesty, and the second confidence. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



DIRECTIONS FOR WRITING WELL. 

As Learners are frequently at a loss for some printed instructions relative 
to both Penmanship and Letter-writing, and as little or no assistance is to 
be had on these subjects from the common elementary books of education, 
it was deemed advisable to introduce some general hints on these heads in 
this place, and they are submitted to the diligent perusal of youth. 

I. Penmanship is an imitative art, and is to be learned only by attending 
closely to the instructions of your Teacher, and by carefully imitating his 
copies. If writing be done at all, it ought to be well done. 

1. Strokes are either straight or crooked, thick or thin. The different 
letters of the alphabet generally contain each more or less of all 
the four kinds of strokes. Let that which ought to be made 
straight, or crooked, or thick, or thin, be made accordingly. 
5. Strokes are also either long or short. The long should have a com- 
mon length, whether they fall above or below the line, as in capi- 
tals, and the stems of b's, q's, &c. only that the upper part of the 
letters p and t in writing ought to be shorter than other stems. The 
length of long strokes is in round hand about double that of short 
ones: in running hand the proportion is still greater. 

3. Let all your strokes be clear, and let them be, in general, straight as 

possible, equidistant, parallel, and sloping. But the turns at the 
top and bottom of a letter ought to be round, not angular or 
pointed. The slope should form an angle of from 51 to 56 degrees 
with the line on which you write.* 

4. Learn to write a good round hand before you begin to write running 

hand; frequently practise round hand; and never write without 
lines. Write slowly at first. When you can write tolerably well, 
you will improve by writing faster. 

5. Lift your hand from off the paper as seldom as possible, and never 

in the middle of a letter. All the strokes of the same word should 
be joined. 

6. Neglect none of the minutiae in writing, as dots to i's, strokes to f's, 

hyphens, apostrophes, points, &c. 

7. If there be two or more ways of writing a letter or character, use 

only one of them, and adopt that which is most common, simple, 
and conformable to the Roman prototype. 

8. Take care to avoid making mistakes or blots in your writing. It is 

generally better to correct with the pen alone, than with the pen 
and pen-knife together. But there are cases in which no correction 
can be allowed. 

9. It is easier to learn to write in a sitting than in a standing posture. 

The position of the head, shoulders, arms, chest, and hands, is to 
be attended to. The head and chest ought to incline somewhat 
towards the writing, but the breast should not press against the 
desk or table on which you write. The elbows are to be kept mo- 
derately close to the body, and the arms are not to press 
heavily on the table. The pen must be held fairly to the paper, 
and gently pressed by the fingers ; and the several motions of the 
pen are to be performed by trie movement of the fingers, and not 
of the hand. 

10. Learn to make your own pen?, to rule your paper, and to use a round 

as well as a flat ruler. Make use of India rubber in cleaning your 
paper, and rubbing out black lead lines. 

11. After finishing your" writing, compare it with the copy, or with the 
rules here laid down, or with any other rules you may remember, and see 
that you improve in every performance. 

* It has been found sometimes useful to apply a gnomon or ruler, which may be made of wood 
or any othei convenient substance, cut to an angle of about 6fty-six degrees, to the lines whiehare 
to be filled, for the purpose of drawing faint parallel* to show the slopes correctly. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. o, 

II. As Letters ought net to be written in a slovenly manner, so neither 
eught they to be composed in a careless style. 

1. Consider whether your subject be compound or complex. A 

compound subject requires that you begin with things past, that yon 
afterwards proceed to things present, and that you conclude with 
things future. 

2. A complex subject, in which there are two or more series of things in 

the order of past, present, and future, requires that you treat of 
each series separately, as if you were writing two or more letters. 
In a complex subject the series may be either broken or complete. 

3. A simple subject treats entirely of a thing that is past, present, or 

future. It may sometimes be treated after the manner of a com- 
pound subject,"by viewing in the order of a series, the history, ap- 
pearances, cause, end, uses, and advantages of the subject. 

4. In private correspondence, when the subject is complex, it is proper 

that business should precede pleasure, that private affairs should go 
before public affairs, and that historic truth and certainty should 
precede doubt and speculation. 

5. Congratulations, thanks, complaints, are generally mentioned in the 

first part of a letter, owing, probably, to their relation to past time, 
and to the importance we wish to attach to them ; and promises, 
presents, compliments, are mentioned last, on account, we may 
suppose, of modesty, and of their relation to futurity. 

6. Represent both sides of a question fairly, whether they be favourable 

or unfavourable to your cause ; because from truth partially spoken, 
or partially understood, do commonly arise more disputes, more 
animosities, and uncharitable dealings, than from any other cause 
whatever. 

7. If you request a favour, take care that your request be reasonable. — 

Shew that you uniformly study to deserve indulgences, that you 
seldom ask for them, that you improve by them, or at least that 
they have never been abused by you. 

8. Do not introduce the same topic in different places of your letter. 

9. Do not divide your letter in a formal manner. Sermons and long 

discourses require to be divided, in order that they may be better 
understood, and remembered : but a letter is a short composition, 
and may be easily read over a second or third time, if occasion 
require. 

10. Do not express yourself abruptly, nor too copiously. The great, the 

busy, and the humble, generally write short letters ; the grave, the 
gay, and the learned, long ones. 

11. Consult the opinion of your friends concerning the merit of your 

juvenile performances. Be not too much elated by praise, and 
carefully amend what is faulty. An attention to the writing, 
stops, capitals, &c. is of course necessary. 

12. Be regular in your correspondence with your friends, and exact in 

fulfilling your promises. On receiving a letter, either answer it 
immediately, or as soon after as you conveniently can. 



EXPLANATION OF ACCENTS, MARKS, AND FIGURES. 

Accents.* — The Hyphen (-) marks a long vowel; at the end of a line and 
elsewhere, it shews the continuation of a word, and it is sometimes used 
contractedly for m or n, as fate, for-tune, cbampio. 

The Breve ( u ) marks a short vowel, as fancy. 

The Grave Accent ( v ) lays the emphasis on a long syllable, as minor, 
lively. 



* Accents are seldom to be met with in English, except in Dictionaries. They occur, however, 
in other languages, and their nses vary. 



10 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

The Acute Accent ( ' ) lays the emphasis on a short syllable, as rfver, 
mineral. 

The Circumflex Accent (~ ) either shews a vowel to be long, or denotes 
contraction, as Francis, Honble. a. 

The Apostrophe ( ' ) denotes contraction, and more especially the elision 
of the vowels e or /, as se'ennight, lov'd, man's. The contractions 'tis, is't, 
can't, don't, shan't, 'em, &c. used for it is, is it, cannot, do not, shall not, them, 
&c. ought generally to be avoided as inelegant. 

The Diaeresis (" ) denotes separation, and shews that two vowels meeting- 
together do not form a diphthong, as aerial, Capernaum. 
Elision ( / ) shews that some letter is to be exterminated. 
Marks. — A section ( § ) shews the principal divisions of a discourse. 
A paragraph ( ^ ) shews that the subject of discourse is changed. It is 
used chiefly in the Bible. — An index (r^) refers to something remarkable. — 
Parenthesis ( ) includes in a sentence something useful to elucidate the 
meaning, without perplexing the construction. It ought to be but seldom 
used. — Brackets or crotchets [ ] enclose a word or phrase by way of com- 
ment or interpolation to fix the meaning, and prevent mistakes. " The sel- 
domer they are used the better. — Braces ( } ) are used in tables, to connect 
things that have a common relation ; as also at the end of triplets in poetry. 
A quotation (" ") distinguishes words that have been formerly used by the 
writer himself, or by some other person. — Asterisms (****), Ellipsis ( — ), and 
Caret ( a ) denote an omission or defect in the manuscript; besides which, 
the caret shews that the defect has been supplied by an interlineation. — 
References to marginal authorities are made in various ways, as by letters 
of the alphabet, by numerical figures, and by certain signs. The signs more 
frequently made use of are the asterisk ( * ), the obelisk ( | ), the dagger ( + ), 
the double dagger ( J ), and parallels ( || ). 

Arithmetical Signs. — Adddition -f, Subtraction — or c/> , Multiplication x 
or . , Division — or a line — separating the Dividend or Numerator above, 
from the Divisor or Denominator below, and Proportion : : ; : . The 
sign of Addition + is named plus, that of Subtraction — minus, or <r> 
the difference between. The other signs signify multiplied by, divided by, and 
; is to '. : as : to. The sign v/ signifies root, or square root. 

Roman Notation. — One I, two II, three III, four IV, five V, six VI, seven 
VII, eight VIII, nine IX, ten X, twenty XX, thirty XXX, forty XL, fifty L, 
sixty LX, seventy LXX, eighty LXXX, ninety XC, a hundred C, two hun- 
dred CC, three hundred CCC, four hundred CD, five hundred D or £3, six 
hundred DC, seven hundred DCC, eight hundred DCCC, nine hundred 
CM, a thousand M or CI3. In the Roman notation a less number placed 
before a greater is to be taken from it, but a less number placed after a 
greater is to be added to it; thus, IX. denotes nine, but XI. signifies eleven. 
Arabian Digits. — One 1, two 2, three 3, four 4, five 5, six 6, seven 7, eight 
8, nine 9, nothing 0. The value of these figures encreases tenfold, a hun- 
dred fold, a thousand fold, &c. according to the order in which they are 
together taken. 

Chemical Characters. — Gold 0, silver ]), mercury $ , copper $ , antimony 
$ , iron $ , steel filings <£, tin %, lead I?, fire A, air ^, earth V. water v, 
quicklime ¥, san( l .v., common salt 0, oil (o), sulphur <£, tartar 9, nitre ® ? 
vitriol 0-, vinegear *»ji, caput mortuum (v). 

Apothecaries' Weight. — Pounds or pints lb, Ounces 3, drams 3, scruples 9, 
gr. grains, fs. half any thing. 

Geo^rjphical Measures. — Degrees °, minutes ', seconds ". 
Sig?2s of the Ecliptic. — Aries <v, Taurus tf , Gemini n, Cancer 25, Leo S\, 
Virgo ttr, Libra -&, Scorpio TTi.. Sagittarius £, Capricornus Irf, Aquarius ~, 
Pisces X- That is, the ram cy>, the bull b, the twins n, the crab ss, the 
lion SI, the virgin ng, the balance ^, the scorpion rri., the archer £, the 
goat's horn Itf, the water bearer zz, the fishes >£• 

Ptinetury Characters. — The sun ©, moon j) , Mercury £ , Venus ? ; the 
earth £ , Mars $ , Jupiter !£, Saturn I?, Herschel $ , a star #. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 



COMMON ABBREVIATIONS EXPLAINED. 

A. B. Bachelor of Arts. A. C. After Christ. A. D. In the Year of our 
Lord. A. M. Master of Arts ; Before Noon; or In the Year of the World 

A. R. In the Reign of Queen Anne. B. Bath. B. A. Bachelor of Arts. 

B. C. Before Christ. B. D. Bachelor of Divinity. B. V. Blessed Virgin. 

C. A Hundred. C. C. Hartshorn. C. C. C. Corpus Christi College; or 
Hartshorn calcined. C. P. S. Keeper of the Privy Seal. C. R. Charles the 
King. C. S. Keeper of the Seal. D. Duke, Dukedom, Deanery, Doctor. 
D.C.L. Doctor of the Civil Law. D. D. Doctor in Divinity. E. East, Even- 
ing. Evangelist. F. A. S. or A. S. S. Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F. R. S, 
Fellow of the Royal Society. F. R. S. E. Fellow of the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh G. R. George the King. I. H. S. Jesus Saviour of Men. L. D. 
Doctor of Law. J. R. James the King. K. King, or Kings. L. Lord, Lake, 
Book. L. D. Lady-day. L. L. D. Doctor of Laws. L. S. Place of the 
Seal. M. Morning, Mix. M. A. Master cf Arts, M. D. Doctor of Medi- 
cine. M. P. Member of Parliament. M. S. Manuscript; or Sacred to Memory. 
MSS. Manuscripts. N. Note, North. N. B. Mark well. N. S. New Stile. 
O. Oliver. O. S. Old Stile. P. Publius, President. P. M. Afternoon. P. S. 
Postscript. P. W. Prince of Wales, Q. Queen, Question. R. King. S. 
South. S. S. S. Stratum super Stratum, Layer above Layer. S. A. According 
to Art. S. N. According to Nature. SS. T P. Professor of Theology. V. 
Virgin. W. West. Abp. Archbishop. Admrs. Administrators/ Agt. 
Against, Agent. Ap. Apostle. Aug. August. Bart. Baronet. Bp. Bishop. 
Capt. Captain. Cent. Centum, a "Hundred. Ch. Chapter. Cit. Citadel, 
Citizen, City. CI. Clergyman. Co. County, Company. Cochl. a spoonful, 
or half an ounce. Col. Colonel, College. Cong, a gallon, or eight pounds. 
Cr. Creditor. Cur. Curate. Curt. Current. Cwt. Hundred weight. 
Dcut. Deuteronomy. Do. Ditto, the same Dr. Doctor, Debtor. Dum. 
Dukedom. Ehz. Elizabeth. Eng. English. Ep. Epistle. Esqr. Esquire. 
Ex. Exodus. Exp. Explanation, Exposition, Express. Feb. February. Fr. 
France, French. Gen. Genesis. Genmo. Generalissimo. Gent. Gentleman. 
Hhd. Hogshead. Honble. Honourable. Ja. James. Jac. Jacob. Jno. John. 
Km. Kingdom. Knt. Knight. Ld Lord. Lp. Lordship. Ldp. Ladyship. Lt. 
or Lieut. Lieutenant. Mastr. Master. Mr. Master. Mrs. Mistress. Messrs. 
Messieurs, or Sirs. No. Number. Oz. Ounces. Rev. Reverend. Rt. 
Right. St. Saint. Sr. Sir. Wp. Worship. Xian. Christian. Xmas, 
Christmas, a ana, of each, aaa, amalgamation, e. g. for example, gr. 
grains, h. s. at bed time. id. the same. i. e. that is. lib. book. lb. 
pounds, m. a handful, n. 1. it does not appear, p. a pugil, or eighth part 
of a handful, p. a?, equal quantities, q. d. as if one should say. q. 1. as 
much as you please, q. s. as much as is sufficient, scil. to wit. v. verse, 
vid. see viz. namely, ye. the. yn. then. vs. this. &c. et eatery and so 
forth. 



C 2 LIST 



*& LIST OF HOMOTONOUS WORDS. [Table III, 



Accompt, account 
Advice, advise 
Ail, aie, hail, hale, ell, eel 
Air, are, eyre, heir, hare, 

hair 
AHay, alley, alloy, ally 
jAloud, allowed 
Altar, alter, halter 
Aunt, ant 
Ascent, assent 
Assistance, assistants 
Ball, bawl 
Bail, bale, bell 
Bacon, baken, beckon, 

beacon 
Berry, bury 
Bear, bare 
Beer, bier 
Bays, baize, beys 
Bee, be 
Been, bean 
Boar, bore, boor 
Borough, burrow, borrow 
Bo, bow, bough, boy, buoy 
Breeches, breaches 

Bred, bread 

By, buy, bye 

Bruise, brews 

Brows, brouse 

But, butt 

Can, cann, cane, ken, 
Cain 

Celery, salary 

Calendar, calender 

Call, cawl 

Cannon, canon 

Capture, captor 

Chart, cart, card 

Censer, censor, censure 

Cell, sell 

Ceil, seal 

Cellar, seller, sailor 

Centaury, century, sentry 

Chace, chaise, cheese 

Chaste, chaced 

Chronicle, chronical 

Claws, clause 

Climb, clime 

Cloths, clothes, close 

Collar, choler 

Compliment,complement 

Concert, consort 

Council, counsel 

Courier, currier 

Cousin, cozen 

Currant, current 

Cymbal, symbol 

Day, dey, die, dye 

Dear, deer 



Deter, diner 
Deference, difference 
Desart, desert 

Decent, descent, dissent 

Dew, due 

Dire, dyer 

Diet, dyet, died, dyed 

Do, doe 

Done, dun, dunn 

Duck, duke 

Extant, extent, extend 

Ear, e'er, ere, here, hear, 
year 

Eminent, imminent 

Ewe, yew, you, u 

Ewes, yews, use 

Fane, fain, feign 

Faint, feint 

Fare, fair, far, fir, fur 

Flee, flea, fly 

Flees, fleas, flies 

Floor, flour, flower 

Fool, foul, fowl 

Gelatinous, glutinous, 
gluttonous 

Gesture, jester 

Gilt, guilt 

Grandeur, grander, gre- 
nadier 

Grot, groat 

Haven, heaven 

Hart, heart, art 

Hast, haste, hist 

Head, heed 

Heal, heel 

High, hie, eye, I 

Higher, hire, ire 

Him, hymn 

His, hiss 

Hop, hope 

Hour, our, oar, ore, o'er 

Hole, whole 

Horse, hoarse 

Hue, hew, Hugh, you, u. 
yew, ewe 

Idol, idle 

I'll, isle, oil, ill 

In, inn 

Incite, insight, inside 

Indict, indite 

Ingenious, ingenuous 

Kill, kiln 

Key, quay 

Knit, nit, net, neat, nut 

Knight, night 

Know, no, now 

Layer, liar, lier, lyre 

Lessen, lesson 

Lest, least 



Lead, led 

Lethargy, liturgy 

Limb, limn 

Loath, loth 

Lo ! low 

Lower, lour 

Lain, lane, line 

Maid, made 

Main, mane 

Male, mail, mall, mell 

Manor, manner, manure 

Mare, mayor, mar, mere 

Marshal, martial 

Mean, mein, mine, men 

Meat, meet, mete 

Meddle, middle, medal 

Metal, mettle 

Mews, muse 

Mows, mouse 

Might, mite, meet, met 

Moan, mown 

Mortar, morter 

Oar, o'er, hour, our 

Of, off 

Oh ! O ! owe, awe 

One, wan, win , won, wine 

Ordinance, ordnance 

Pail, pale, peal, peel, pall 

Pain, pane, pan 

Pastor, pasture 

Parson, person 

Pear, pair, pare, per, par 

Peer, pier 

Pace, pass 

Pause, paws 

Peace, piece, pease 

Patron, pattern 

Parackle, parasite 

Pike, pique, pick 

Place, plaice 

Pleas, please 

Populace, populous 

Plane, plain 

Plait, plate 

Plumb, plum, plume 

Pole, poll 

Poplar, popular 

Poor, pour, power 

Presence, presents 

Praise, prays, preys, pries 

Practice, practise 

Precedent, president 

Premises, premisses 

Principal, principle 

Princes, princess 

Prophecy, prophesy 

Profit, prophet 

Quean, queen 

Quit, quite 



Table III.] LIST OF HOMOTONOUS WORDS. 13 



Rancour, ranker 

Rain, rein, reign 

Reasons, raisins 

Raise, rays, rise 

Raiser, razor, razure 

Read, reed, red, rid 

Relic, relict 

Rhyme, rime, rim 

Recent, resent 

Rot, rote, wrote 

Right, rite, write, wright 

Road, rode, rowed, rod 

Roe, row 

Rome, room, roam 

Root, rout 

Satan, satin 

Sell, cell, sail, sale 

Saver, savour 

Scene, seen 

Seas, sees, seize, cease 

Seam, seem 

Sear, seer 

Scent, sent, cent 

Sects, sex 

Senate, se'ennight 

Seignior, senior 

Shew, show, shoe 

Shore, shoar, shower 

sewer 
Sign, sine, sin 
Sight, site, cite 
Sire, sir 

Sleight, slight, slit 
Sloe, slow 
So, sow, sew, sue 



Sore, soar, sower, sour 

Some, sum 

Sun, son, soon, swoon 

Soal« sole, soul 

Stair, stare, star 

Starling, sterling 

Stead, steed 

Steal, steel, stile, style, 

still 
Stood, stud 
Sweat, sweet 
Tax, tacks, takes 
Tail, tale 
Taint, tenth, tint 
Team, teem 
The, thee 
There, their 
Throne, thrown 
Thyme, time 
To, too, two, toe 
Tour, tower 
Track, tract 
Us, use, ewes, yews 
Vale, veil, vail, veal 
V 7 alley, value 
Vain, vane, vein, van 
Vial, viol 

Vacation, vocation 
Ure, ewer, your 
Wain, wane, wean, wan 
Ware, wear, were 
Waist, waste 
Wait, weight, white 
Way, weigh, wey, whey, 

why | 



Weal, wheel, will, well 

Wood, wooed, would 

Weak, week, wick 

Weather, wether, whi- 
ther, wither, whe- 
ther 

Yew, you, ewe, u 

Yoke, yolk 



To the above Table may 
be added such words as 
have various meanings, 
and whose meanings are 
liable to be confounded^ 
as 

Sound 

Sight 

Smell 

Taste 

Feeling' 

Heat 

Cold 

Hardness 

Softness 

Bitter 

Sweet, 
and many others. An 
attention to the homonym 
my of language is of the 
utmost importance to 
truth, whether founded 
on reason or experience, 
in all cases where com- 
mon sense is concerned. 



LIST 



14 



LIST OF SYNONIMOUS WORDS. [Table IV. 



Abandon, desert, torsake, leave, quit 
relinquish ] 

Abase, degrade, dishonour, humble 

Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen 

Abdicate, renounce, resign 

Abhor, detest, hate, loth 

Abilities, cleverness, ingenuity, parts 

Ability, capacity, faculty, power 

Abject, beggarly, low, mean 

Abolish, abrogate, disannul, repeal, 
revoke, rescind 

Abominable, detestable, execrable 

Absent, inattentive 

Absolution, pardon, remission 

Abstemious, sober, temperate 

Abstinence, fast 14 

Abstraction, precision 

Absurd, inconsistent, unreasonable 

Abundance, plenty 

Abuse, affront, insult 

Abuse, misuse 

Abyss, gulph 

Academy > school 

Accelerate, dispatch, hasten 

Accent, emphasis 

Accept, receive, take 

Acclivity, declivity 

Accost, approach 

Accumulate, amass 

Accusation, charge 

Acid, sharp, sour 

Acknowledgment, confession 

Acquainted, familiar, intimate 

Acquiesce, agree, consent 

Act, action, deed 

Adage, maxim, proverb 

Add, augment, encrease, enlarge 

Address, air, behaviour, carriage, de 
portmenr, manners, mien 

Adjacent, contiguous 

Adjective, epithet 

Adjournment, prorogation 39 

Adjust, reconcile 

Admonition, advice, counsel 

Adulation, flattery 

Advantageous, beneficial, profitable 

Adveibial phrases, adverbs 4 1 

iEra, epoch, period 

Affairs, business 

Affected, studied 

Affect, pretend 

Affection, love 40 

Affidavit, oath 

Affirm, assert, attest, aver, avouch, 
maintain, protest, swear 

Afraid, apprehensive, dreading, fear- 
ing 

Against, in spite of 

Agony, pang 54 



19 



23 



28 



34 



Agreeable, pleasing 

Agreement, bargain, contract 56 

Aim, design, intention, project, scope, 
view 

Ale-house, public-house, hotel, inn, 
tavern 

All, every 

Alley, pa*th 60 

Alliance, league 

Allurements, attractions, charms 

Alone, only 

Also, likewise 

Always, continually, perpetually 65 

Amazement, astonishment, surprise, 
wonder 

Ambassador, legate, resident 67 

Ambiguity, equivocation, double en- 
tendre 

Amend, improve 

Amends, indemnity 

Among, amongst 71 

Amuse, divert 

Amusement, diversion 

Ancestor, predecessor 

Ancient, antique, old 75 

Anecdotes, annals, biography, chro- 
nicles, history, life, memoirs, 
records 

Angry, in a passion, wroth 

Animal, beast, brute 79 

Animate, carry on, encourage, incite, 
excite, spur, urge 

Answer, reply 

Antecedent, anterior, preceding 

Antlers, horns 

Apartment, lodging 84 

Aphorism,apophthegm,axiom,maxim, 
sentence 

Apparition, vision 

Appear, seem 

Appearance, outside 

Appease, calm 89 

Appropriation, impropriation 

Arbour, bower 

Arched, vaulted 

Arise, derive, flow, issue, proceed 

Arms, escutcheons 94 

Arms, weapons 

Aromatics, perfumes 

Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, 
pride, vanity 

Arrogate, assume 98 

Art, business, profession, trade 

Articulate, pronounce 

Artifice, cunning, device, finesse, 
stratagem, trick 

Artificer, artisan, artist 

As to, for 

Ashamed, bashful 10 i 



Table IV] LIST OF SYNONIMOUS WORDS. 



15 



Ask, inquire, interrogate 1U5 

Assassination, murder 

Assessment, rate, tax 

Assiduous, diligent, expeditious, quick 

Assist, help, relieve, succour 

Assurance, confidence, impudence 

Asylum, refuge 111 

Attachment, devotion, passion 

Attitude, disposition, posture 

Attribute, impute 

Audacity, boldness, effrontery, impu- 
dence 

Augur, portend, presage , 116 

Austere, severe 

Authority, dominion, jurisdiction 
power 

Avaricious, covetous, miserly, nig- 
gardly 

Avoid, rly, shun 

Awake, awaken 121 

Babbler, prater 

Bad, vile 

Banishment, exile 

Bank, beach, coast, shore 

Barter, exchange, truck 126 

Battle, combat, engagement, fight 

Be, exist, subsist 

Beam, ray- 
Beat, strike 

Beautiful, handsome, pretty 131 

Becoming, decent, decorous 

Behold, look, see, view 

Belief, faith, opinion, conjecture 

Benediction, blessing 

Beneficence, benevolence 

Benevolence, benignity, humanity 
kindness, tenderness 137 

Bequeath, devise 

Beside, besides 

Besides, furthermore, moreover 

Between, betwixt 

Bias, inclination, propensity 142 

Bid, command, desire, order 

Big, great, large 

Billow, surge, wave 

Bind, tie 

Bishoprick, diocese 147 

Black, negro 

Blend, mingle, mix 

Bliss, felicity, happiness 

Board, plank 

Boggle, hesitate 152 

Boggy, marshy 

JBook, volume 

Bottom, dale, vale, valley 

Bounds, confines, limits 

Bounty, generosity, liberality 

Bravery, courage, intrepidity, prowess, 
valour 158 



Brightness, light, splendour 159 

Brilliancy, lustre, radiancy 

Bring, fetch 

Broad, wide 

Brook, rivulet, stream 

Burden, load 

Bury, inter 165 

Bush, tree 

Butchery, carnage, massacre 

Buttress, prop, support 

Calamity, disaster, misfortune 

Calculate, count, reckon 

Call, name 171 

Cannot, impossible 

Care, caution, discretion, prudence 

Case, circumstance, conjuncture, oc- 
casion, occurrence 

Cash, money 

Catalogue, list 

Cathedral, collegiate church 177 

Cave, cavern, cell 

Cease, finish, leave off 

Celebiated, famous, illustrious, re- 
nowned 

Certain, infallible 181 

Certainly, with certainty 

Chace, forest, park 

Chamber, room 

Chance, fortune 

Change, variation 186 

Changeable, fickle, inconstant, un- 
steady 

Charm, inchantment, spell 

Charms, graces 

Chastise, correct, discipline, punish 

Chastity, continence, modesty, purity 

Cheerfulness, mirth 192 

Chief, head 

Choaked, smothered, suffocated 

Choose, make choice of 

Choose, take 

Choose, prefer 197 

Circumspection, consideration, regard 

City, town, burgh 

Civility, favour, good office, kindness, 
service 

Clear, transparent 201 

Clearly, distinctly 

Clemency, mercy, pity 

Clergyman, minister, parson, priest 

Clock, dial 

Cloister, convent, monastery 206 

Close, shut 

Clothes, dress 

Collation, institution, presentation 

Colours, iiags 

Column, pillar 



Commerce, trade, traffic 



513 



16 



LIST OF SYNONIMOUS WORDS. [Table IV. 



Commiseration, compassion, pity 

Compel, constrain, force, oblige 215 

Complaisance, condescension, defe- 
rence 

Complaisant, polite, well-bred 

Complete, entire, finished, perfect 

Complete, conclude, end, finish 

Complexion, constitution, nature, 
temperament 220 

Complicated, involved 

Comprehend, conceive, understand 

Compunction, remorse 

Conceal, dissemble, disguise 

Concern, regard, touch 225 

Conclude, infer 

Conclusion, sequel 

Condition, situation, state 

Conduct, direction, management 

Conduct, guide, lead 

Confound, confuse 

Conjecture, presumption, surmise 

Conquer, overcome, subdue 

Consanguinity, kindred, relations 

Conspiracy, plot 235 

Constancy, resolution, steadiness 

Consternation, fear, terror 

Constitution, government 

Content, satisfaction 

Continual, continued, perpetual 240 

Continuance, continuation 

Contrition, remorse, repentance 

Conversation, discourse 

Copperplate, cut, print 

Copy, model 

Corruption, depravity 

Courteous, courtly, gentlemanlike 

Coward, poltron 

Crime, fault, misdemeanour, sin 

Cry, lament, mourn, wail, weep 250 

Cure, remedy 

Current, stream 

Custom, fashion, habit 

Custom, prescription, usage 

Custom, duty, impost, tax 

Customs, fashions, manners 

Cut, lop, prune 

Damsel, maid, virgin 

Danger, hazard, risk, venture 

Darkness, obscurity 

Deal, much 

Death, decease, departure 

Decay, decline, decrease 

Deceitful, insidious 

Declare, notify 

Defamation, detraction 
Defame, slander 

Defect, fault, imperfection 
Dejection, low spirits, melancholy 
Delicate, fine, tender 2?0 



254 



260 



265 



Delight, pleasure 

Deliver, free 272 

Denote, mark, shew 

Deplorable, lamentable 

Depose, deprive 

Depose, dethrone 

Derision, mockery, ridicule 

Deserving, worthy 

Desert, uninhabited 279 

Desolate, lay waste, ravage, sack 

Destiny, fortune, lot 

Destiny, destination 

Detain, keep 

Determination, resolution 234 

Detriment, harm, hurt, injury, mis- 
chief 

Devotion, piety, religion 

Die, expire 

Difference, dispute, quarrel 283 

Difference, distinction 

Different, diverse, sundry, various 

Dirt, mire, mud 

Discern, distinguish 

Discerning, judging, knowing 293 

Disclose, discover, divulge, reveal, 
tell 

Discover, find 

Discredit, disgrace 

Disdain, haughtiness 297 

Disease, distemper, malady, sickness 

Disgraceful, scandalous, shameful 

Disguise, mask 

Disperse, scatter 

Dispose, make ready, prepare 302 

Dissertation, essay, treatise 

Distinction, fashion, quality 

Ditch, trench 

Diversity, variety 

Diverting, entertaining 307 

Divination, prediction 

Divorce, repudiate 

Doubt, suspense, uncertainty 

Dread, horror 311 

Dream, imagination, reverie, vision 

Dregs, sediment 

Drop, fall, tumble 

Drunk, fuddled, intoxicated 

Duration, existence 

Duty, obligation 317 

Dwell, live 

Dwelling, house, residence, tenement 

Earth, ground, land 

Easy, ready 

Eclipse, obscure, darken, shade 322 

Effectual, efficacious 

Efrigy, image, statue 

Effort, endeavour 

Elegance, grace 

Elegant, genteel S27 

3 



Table IV.] LIST OF SYNONIMOUS WORDS. 



17 



Encomium, eulogy, praise 328 

Embryo, foetus 

Emolument, gain, lucre, profit 

Empire, kingdom, republic, state 

Employ, ministry, office, place 

Emulation, envy, rivalry 333 

Encircle, enclose, encompass, sur- 
round 

End, extremity 

Endow, establish, found, institute 

Engage, oblige 

Enlarge, encrease 338 

Enmity, rancour 

Enormous, huge, immense, vast 

Enough, sufficient 

Enthusiasm, superstition, idolatry 

Epistle, letter 

Equity, justice, law, right 644 

Eradicate, extirpate 

Erudition, genius, learning, literature 

Esquire, gentleman, nobleman, yeo- 
man 

Esteem, regard, respect, veneration 

Event, issue, incident 349 

Evil, iniquity, injustice, mischief, sin, 
unrighteousness, wickedness 

Exaction, extortion, oppression 

Excursion, jaunt, ramble 

Excuse, forgive, pardon 35S 

Execration, imprecation, malediction 

Exemption, immunity, privilege 

Expect, hope 

Expedient, resource 

Experiment, proof, trial 358 

Expression, term, word 

Extol, laud, magnify, praise 

Extravagance, prodigality, profuse- 
ness 

Extremely, very 362 

Fabric, manufacture, texture 

Faithless, false, fickle, inconstant 

Falsehood, lie, mistake 

Family, house, lineage, posterity, 
progeny, race 

Famished, starved 367 

Fanciful, fantastical, whimsical 

Farmer, husbandman 

Fascinated, infatuated, prejudiced 

Fashion, figure, form 

Fast, hard 

Fatigued, tired, wearied S73 

Favourable, propitious 

Feebleness, imbecility, weakness 

Feel, handle 

Fertile, fruitful, prolific 

Fervency, warmth 378 

Find, meet 

Find out, invent 

Flat, insipid 381 



Flatterer, parasite, sycophant 
Flexibility, pliancy 
Flesh, meat 
Flow, issue 
Fluid, liquid 



Fog, mist 



383 



387 



Foolish, simple, silly, weak 

Footstep, track 

Forbid, prohibit 

Forebode, foretel, predict, prognosti- 
cate, prophesy 

Fortunate, lucky, successful 392 

Forward, forwards 

Frankness, ingenuousness, plainness, 
sincerity 

Free, libertine 

Freedom, liberty, licentiousness 

Frequently, often 397 

Fresh, new, recent 

Friendship, love 

Frugality, ceconomy, parsimony 

Fulfil, keep, observe 

Funeral rites, obsequies 

Fury, rage, wrath 403 

Gaiety, joy, mirth 

Gay, merry, cheerful 

Gaze, stare 

Genealogy, pedigree 

General, universal 408 

Generosity, greatness of soul, magna- 
nimity 

Gentry, nobility, quality 

Genius, talent 

Gentle, tame 4t2 

Get up, rise 

Gift, present 

Give, present, offer 

Glance, look 

Glib, slippery 417 

Glory, honour, splendour, dignity 

Go back, return 

Gold, golden 

Good breeding, good manner* 

Good fortune, prosperity 

Good humour, good nature 423 

Grave, sedate, serious, staid 

Great, sublime 

Great, illustrious 

Grot, grotto 

Grow, increase 

Halt, lame, limping 429 

Hankering, longing, having a mind 
to, desiring, lusting after, wish- 



ing for 



Harbour, haven, port 
Haste, hurry 
Hasty, passionate, warm 
Have, hold, posset* 
Heap, pile 



432 



435 



18 



LIST OF SYNONIMOUS WORDS. [Table IV 



Hear, hearken 436 

Heathens, idolaters, infidels, pagans 

Heaven, paradise 

Heaviness, weight 

Heavy, weighty 

Heir apparent, heir presumptive 441 

Herb, plant 

High, lofty 

Honesty, integrity, probity 

Hovel, hut, shed 

However, in the mean time, never- 
theless, yet 446 

Humour, wit 

Hurricane, storm, tempest 

Husband, spouse 

Idea, imagination, notion, thought 

Idle, slothful, lazy 451 

Ignominy, infamy 

111, not well, sick 

Illegal, illicit 

Immediately, instantly, now, pre 
sently 455 

Impediment, obstacle, obstruction 

Impertinent, impudent, saucy 

Implacable, inexorable, inflexible, 
relentless 

Importunate, pressing, urgent 459 

Inability, incapacity, insufficiency 

Inadvertency, inattention 

Inclose, shut up 

Incursion, irruption 

Indigence, necessity, need, poverty 
want 464 

Indolence, sloth, laziness,sluggishness 

Ineffectually, in vain, to no purpose 

Inexpressible, unspeakable, unutter- 
able 

Infectious, contagious, pestilential 

Inflexibility, obstinacy, resolution 

Influence, sway, weight 470 

Infringe, transgress, violate 

In order to, to 

Insinuate, suggest 

Instant, moment 

Instruct, learn, teach 

Insurrection,- rebellion 476 

Intelligence, knowledge, understand- 
ing 

Interior, internal, inward 

Inveigh, rail 

Joining, union 

Judgment, sense 481 

Justice, law, right 

Justness, precision 

Lampoon, satire 

Lake, pond, pool 

Landscape, prospect 

Language, tongue 

Lasciviousness, wantonness 483 



Lay, lie 489 

Lead into, lead to 

Lean, meagre 

Learn, study 

Let down, lower 

Level, smooth 494 

Lift, raise 

Limner, painter 

Literally, according to letter 

Little, small 

Livid, pale, wan 

Lover, in love 500 

Lunacy, insanity, madness 

Luxury, voluptuousness 

Madness, delirium, phrenzy 

Magnificence, pomp, sumptuousness 

Manifest, proclaim, publish 505 

Mariner, sailor, seaman 

Matter, subject 

Means, ways 

Memory, mind, recollection, remem- 
brance 509 

Merchandize, wares 

Metamorphose, transform 

Methodical, regular 

Middle, midst 

Mine, my, my own 514 

Mitigate, moderate, soften 

Modest, reserved 

Motion, movement 

Muse, meditate, study, think 

Mute, silent 

Mutual, reciprocal 620 

Nation, people 

Naval, nautical 

Near, nigh 

Necessary, ought, should 

IN ecessity, occasion, opportunity 

No, not 

Nothing, no thing 527 

Notes, observations, remarks 

Notorious, public 

Nourishing, nutritious, nutritive 

Novel, romance, story, tale 

Oblation, offering, sacrifice 

Obiate, oblong, oval 533 

Ocean, sea 

Odoriferous, odorous, fragrant 

Odour, smell 

On, upon 

Opiniative, conceited, prejudiced, pre- 
possessed 538 

Opinion, sentiment, thought 

Order, rule, command 

Order, regularity 

Origin, source 

Ostentation, parade, pomp, shew 

Painting, picture 

Paralogism, sophism 545 



Table IV.] LIST OF SYNONIMOUS WORDS. 19 



Peace, quiet, tranquillity 546 

Penetrating, piercing 

People, persons, folk 

Perceive, see 

Permit, suffer, tolerate 

Persevere, persist t 

Perspiration, sweat 552 

Persuasion, religion 

Place, put 

Pray, intreat, beseech, supplicate 

Prejudice, prepossession, prevention 

Prerogative, privilege 557 

Presumptive, presumptuous 

Pretence, pretext 

Production, work 

Prospect, view 

Prudence, understanding, wisdom 

Purge, purify 563 

Quality, talent 

Quickly, soon, speedily 

Rank, row 

Reform, reformation 

Regret, remorse, repentance, sorrow 

Reprimand, reprove 569 

Remain, stay 

Restore, return, surrender 

Retinue, train 

Rigour, severity 

Riot, tumult, uproar 574 

Road, way 

Robust, stout, strong, sturdy 

Rogue, sharper, thiefj villain 

Rough, rugged 573 



Rove, stray, wander 579 

Servant, slave, domestic 

Serviceable, useful 

Shake, tremble 

Shall, will 

Sigh, sob 

Sign, signal, token 585 

So, for this rsason, therefore 

Sociable, social 

Spire, steeple 

Stagger, totter 

Stammer, stutter 590 

Surmise, suspicion 

Swear, make oath of 

Teaze, vex 

Tension, tenseness 

Testament, will 

Timber, wood 596 

Toward, towards 

Translation, version 

Unbelievers, sceptics, atheists, deists 

Twelve months, a twelvemonth 

Unemployed, unoccupied 

Unexampled, unprecedented 602 

Unity, peace, concord 

Universe, world 

Unnatural, not natural 

Up, upright 

Value, worth, price 607 

Variation, variety, change 

While, whilst 

Wideness, width. 

610 



D2 



ETYMOLOGY. 



( 80 ) 

ETYMOLOGY. 



DEFINITIONS. 

L AN Article is a word prefixed to substantives t6 point 
them oat, and to shew how far their signification extends. 

1. The Indefinite Article, A or an, is used in a vague 

sense, to point out one single thing of the kind — in 
other respects indeterminate, as a city, a river, a book. 

2. The Definite Article, The^ ascertains what particular 

thing or things are meant, as the milkman, the horses. 
S. Without an Article, nouns singular are taken in their 
widest or most general sense, as time h precious, truth 
is eternal. 

II. A Substantive, Name, or Noun, is the name of any thing 
that exists, or of which we have any notion, as Thomas, moun- 
tain, duty. 

1. A Proper Name is the name appropriated to an indivi- 

dual, as George, London, Thames. 

2. A Common Noun is the name given to many individuals 

of the same sort, as man, beast, bird. 

III. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun, to avoid 
the too frequent repetition of the same word. 

1. Personal Pronouns are used for substantives, and signify 

the person that speaks, the person spoken to, or the 
person spoken of. 

2. Possessive Pronouns are those which relate to property 

or possession. 

3. Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to 

some word or phrase going before, which is thence 
called the Antecedent. Interrogative Pronouns are 
Relatives which have the word or phrase to which 
they relate, following after them, which is thence 
called the Consequent. 

4. Distributive Pronouns denote that certain persons or 

things making a number, are taken separately, or 
individually. 

5. Demonstrative Pronouns point out the objects as deter- 

minate to which they relate. 

6. Indefinite Pronouns relate to subjects that are vague 

or indeterminate. 

IV. An Adjective, Epithet, or Adnoun, is a word added to a 
substantive to express its quality. 

1. An Adjective in the Positive Degree expresses the qua- 
lity of an object, simply, and absolutely, or without 
any increase or diminution. 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

2. An Adjective in the Comparative Degree expresses the 

quality of one subject of discourse as greater or less 
than the like quality in another subject, as He is taller 
than Any of his brothers. 

3. The Superlative Degree expresses excellence, and in re- 

spect of three or more similar qualities expresses excess 
or defect in the highest or lowest degree, as the 
greatest of these is charity. 

V. A Verb is a word which signifies to Be, to Do, or to 
Suffer.. It expresses affirmation either directly or indirectly, 
and includes an idea of time. 

1. An Active Verb expresses an action, and necessarily 

implies an Agent, and an object acted upon, as 
Alexander conquered the Persians. 

2. A Passive Verb expresses Passion, or Suffering, or the 

receiving of an Action, and necessarily implies a 
subject acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted 
upon, as The Persians were conquered by Alexander. 

3. A JSeuter Verb expresses neither Action nor Passion, 

but simply Being, or else a State of Being ; as To be, 
to zealk. 

VI. A Participle* is a part of speech derived from a verb, 
and construed partly as an adjective and partly as a verb, de- 
noting a quality or attribute with time. 

VII. An Adverb is a word added to a verb, noun, adjective, 
or other adverb, to express some quality or circumstance re- 
specting them; as he reads aloud, only a boy, truly wise, inimi- 
tably well. 

VIII. Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, 
and to shew the relation between them ; as a map of the world, 
an excursion to the country, a deliverance from danger. 

IX. Conjunctions serve to connect sentences with one 
another, and to reduce two or more simple sentences to one 
compound sentence. They sometimes serve to connect only 
words, as The wants of nature are few, and may be easily supplied; 
but the wants of fancy are innumerable, and occasion much misery 
to mankind. Two and two are four. 

1. A Conjunction Copulative serves to continue or connect 

a sentence, by expressing an addition, supposition, 
cause, purpose, wish, &c. 

2. A Conjunction Disjunctive continues the sentence, but 

expresses a weaker or stronger opposition of sense. 

X. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a 
sentence to express the passions or emotions of the speaker, as 
Fy! Alas! 

* Some Grammarians account the Participle a part of the verb, which reduces the number of 
the Parts of Speech to nine. 



on 



Table V.] PARSING TABLE. [Part I. 


Articles, 


Pronouns, 


Preposns 


Conjunctions, 


Interjections. 


2. 


30. 


40. 


34. 


28. 


S S Ao/ 


>s f I, myself 
| 1 Thou, thyself 


Above 




f Also 


r Ah ! 


1 Un, 


About 




And 


'^ J Alas! 


Z< He, himself 


Across 




Because 


3] Oh! 


J J The 


* | She, herself 


After 




Both 


LO! 


° [it, itself 


Against 


| 


For 








My, mine, my own 


Along 
Amidst 


5 Like 


* rPoh! 

r J Pish! 
1 1 Pshaw! 
a LTush! 






Thy, thine, thy own 


Among 


- 


Likewise 




■§ 


His, his own 


Amongst 




Since 




u 


Her, hers, her own 


At 




So 






a 


Our, ours, our own 


Before 




That 


^ , Bravo ! 
|^ L Huzza ! 




t- 


Your, yours, yonr own 


Behind 








Their, theirs, their own 


Below 




'As 


| L Victory! 






Beneath 




But 






r 


Who, whoever, whosoever 


Beside 




Either 


£ , Heigh! 
f-jRealiy! 




v 


Which, whichever 


Between 


. 


Neither 




IH 


That [ever 


Betwixt 


§> 


Lest 


S LStrange! 






What, whatever, whatso- 


Beyond 




Or 






<o 


Whether 


By 


Nor [ing 


si rHem! 






Down 


~ 


Notwithstand- 


a^Ho! 

3 l So ho ! 




^ ("Each 


Except 




Than 




£ J Every 


For 




Though 






g 1 Either 


From 




Unless 


§ r Foh! 




* INeither 


In 




Yet 


MFie! 






Into 




^ I Away! 




e j-This 


Near 


^ f Accordingly 






!1 That 
J "-Same 


Of 


^ 


Consequently 


4 Behold ! 




Off 


s 


So 


5 \ Hark! 






On 


'£> 


Then 


^ iLo! 




(-Some 


Over 


a 


Therefore 






S 1 Other 


Out,outof 


l< 


When 


i r Hist! 




|«j Any 


Through 


^ W hence 


?^ Hush ! 




To 


1 j Whenever 


% I Hail! 




■*• No, none 


Towards 


B 1 Wherefore 






<° l Such 


Under 


?j Wherever 


-/Allhail! 






Up 


3 [Whether 


| [Welcome ! 






Upon 










With 










Within 










Without 






Homonymy of the above Table explained. 


Themes. 


Fronominally. 


Adverbially, 
like as 


Preposstively. 


Conjunctively. 

When, so — as 


As .... 






Either • • . 


one of the two ..... 




because of} 
instead of $ 


eitaer — or 

because 

neither — nor 
whereas 


Neither . • 
Since • • • 


not one of the two ■ • • 


since that time • • 


So 

That- • • • 
Then • • ■ 


cRel. who, which ■ • • 
IDem. that same • ■ • 


comparatively • • 
at that time • • • 




in such wise 
f thus that, or 
Ithat thus 
consequently 


Whether . • 
Note. 1- — Th 


which of the two 

b Pupil will have to consult me Acoueuce ror tlie Pronominal words not spccinec 


in the above Table, as tliey will be found in the decleusion of Pronouns. 


Jfrtt 1. — Prepositions used adverbiallv. that is. without a resinrrn. become adverbs of olaoe. 



Part II.] PARSING TABLE. [Table V. 






Some 


Principal Adverbs not endin 


g in ly. 


Principal Adverbs 
ending in /*/. 


r About 


l 


Arter 


Awry 


| 


Generally 




Abreast 




Afterwards 




Better 


.1 


Particularly 




Along 




Again 


& 


Headlong 


5^ 


Principally 




Apart 




Ago 


|J Rather 


a; 


Separately 




Ashore 




Already 


3 


Right 




Universally 




Aside 




Always 




Well 






Asunder 




Anew 




.Worse 


i 


Anciently 




Backward 




Aye 






Continually 




Below 




Afresh 


f First 




Directly 




Before 




Before 


£ J Once 




Formerly 




By 




Ever 


S] Twice 
° LThrice 




Frequently 




Down 




Henceforth 




Immediately 




Downwar 




Henceforward 






Incessantly 




Elsewhere 




Hereafter 


i 


'Again 


<j 


Instantly 




Far 




Heretofore 




As 


JNl 




Forward 




Long 




Ay 




Perpetually 




Hence 


5 < 


Never 


5 


Doubtless 




Presently 




Hereabout 




Now 


| 


Indeed 




Quickly 




Here 




Oft, often 




So 




Shortly 




Herein 




Oft-times 


§ 

^ 


Sure 




Speedily 




Hither 




Oftentimes 


Thus 




Suddenly 




Hitherward 




Once 




Therefore 




-Usually 




Instead 




Seldom 




Yea 






Near 




Since 




Yes 




Chiefly 


Nowhere 




Sometimes 






Especially 


ft 


Round 




Soon 


Else 




Only 




Roundabout 




Straightways 


^ Nay 


5 


Primarily 




Somewhere 




Then 


S I No 


Secondly 




Straight 




Until 


& K 


Not 




Thirdly 




Thence 




When 


< 


Nowise 




Finally 




There 




While 




-Otherwise 




.Lastly 




Thither 




Whilst 








Thitherward 




Yesterday 




How 




"Assuredly 




Together 




LYet 




How much 


j 


Certainly 




Towards 




Almost 




Perchance 


.5 


Equally 




Under 




Altogether 




Perhaps 


S < 


Namely 




Up 




Enough 


•a 

3 


Peradventure 


£ 
*& 


Truly 




Upward 




Just 


3^ 


When? 


^ 


Verily 




Whence 




Little 




Where ? 




L Undoubtedly 




Where 


;£, 


Less 




Wherefore ? 






Whither 


a 


Least 




W T hether ? 


„• [Likely 
^Possibly 
q L Probably 




Whitherward 


Long 
Much 




Whither ? 




Whencesoever 


5 




.Why? 




Wheresoever 




More 








Whithersoever 




Quite 








Within 




Scarce 








Without 




Thorough 








Yonder 




I Very 






Note.— There are few or no Advfrbs of PI 


ice or Quantity ending in ly. Those of Quality 


ending in ly are too numerous for insertion. 




Note.— That the same word has often a diffcn 


>nt etymology according to its signification. Thus 


the word long may be an adjective, a verb, or a 


n adverb, according as it signifies continuation, 


desire, or distance. 





24 ETYMOLOGY. 



OF RESOLUTION, OR ANALYSIS. 

In order to refer words to their proper classes or sorts, and to 
ascertain their various inflections and changes, the following 
rules, together with a competent knowledge of Syntax, will be 
useful. 

I. Commit perfectly to memory the Etymological Table of 
Articles, Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections, 
and Adverbs, and refer to it as often as occasion may require. 

II. Make yourself master of the Accidence of Nouns, Pro- 
nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. 

III. Attend also to the subsequent rules of Derivation. 

IV. The more numerous classes of words, namely, Nouns, 
Adjectives, and Verbs, may be distinguished after this manner; 
viz. 

1. A Noun will admit of a Preposition or the Interjection 
O ! before it, as with difficulty, O ! Sir ! 

1. An Adjective makes sense when joined with the words 
man, woman, thing, or some other appropriate sub- 
stantive ; as, av. honest man, a virtuous woman, a good 
rule, a vitiated taste. 

3. A Verb admits of a Personal Pronoun before it ; as also 

of a Noun, or the Preposition To; as, We beseech, 
they ure instructed, the men wonder, to see. 

4. Words ending in cd are verbs, or participles ; such as 

end in ing are nouns, adjectives, or verbs ; and most 
words ending in ly are adveibs. 

V. The same word is often used in different senses, and con- 
sequently often belongs to different parts of speech, in a case of 
which kind it is best to consider whether the word in question 
expresses a name, a quality, an affirmation, or a circumstance, 
by which it will immediately appear whether the word is a 
noun, adjective, verb, or adverb, according to the Definitions. 

VI. When That is used for who, or which, it is a Relative 
Pronoun ; when it signifies the same, or the former, it is a de- 
monstrative Pronoun; and when it admits of the phrase in order, 
or of a short pause and the word thus before it, or when it sig- 
nifies because, it is a Conjunction. In like manner, by the 
sense, are distinguished the Pronouns and Conjunctions both, 
either, neither; and the Preposition and Conjunction for. 

VII. When Prepositions and Conjunctions are not use4 a* 
Connectives, they are Adverbs. 

3 



ETYMOLOGY. 



ACCIDENCE. 

The Inflections of the English Language are but few. 

The Declinable Parts of Speech are three, viz. Noun, Pro- 
noun, and Verb. 

The Indeclinable Parts of Speech are seven ; viz. Article, 
Adjective, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and 
Interjection.* 



ACCIDENCE OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Definitions. 

I. Gender is the distinction of sex. 

1. The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex, as a man, 

a lion, he. 

2. The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex, as a 

woman, a lioness, she. 

3. The Neuter Gender signifies neither male nor female, 

as a river, a mountain, it.f 

II. Number is the consideration of an object as one or more. 

1. The Singular Number expresses but one object. 

2. The Plural Number expresses more objects than one.J 

III. Case is the form whjch nouns and pronouns assume 
in consequence of their relation to other words. 

1. The Nominative Case, Leading State, or Subject, sim- 

ply indicates the name of an object, or the subject 
of an affirmation, or address. 

2. The Possessive or Genitive Case expresses the relation 

of property or possession. 

3. The Objective, Accusative, Following State, or Case of 

Regimen, expresses the object of an action, or of a 
relation. 

IV. Person is the relation that subsists between the leading 
subjects of discourse. 

1. The First Person is the person who speaks : the sign is I, 
or We. 



* The English Accidence, to speak grammatically, is said to treat of the Declension of Nouns and 
Pronouns, of the Comparison of Adjectives, and of the Conjugation of Verbs. 

The Accidents of Nouns and Pronouns are four, viz. Gender, Number, Case, and Person. 

The Genders are three, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter; the Numbers two, Singular and 
Plural; and the Cases three, Nominative, Possessive, and Objective; and the Persons three, 
First, Second, and Third. 

It may be doubted whether Person be strictly an Accident, as it never produces any change 
in the word ; but the name has been retained by Grammarians, to prevent an inconvenient accu- 
mulation ef technical terms. 

+ Gender is sometimes r'igurative, as when we call the sun he, the moon she, a child it. 

% Number is Figurative when we and you are used instead of land thou. 

E 



26 



ETYMOLOGY. 



2. The Second Person is the person spoken to : the sign is 

thou, ye, or you, or a noun preceded by an interjection. 

3. The Third Person is the person spoken of, and is repre- 

sented by the Pronoun he, and all other words, ex- 
cepting the signs of the first and second Persons.* 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

Declension, exclusive of the consideration of Gender, is the 
variation of words by Numbers and Cases. In English there is 
but one Declension of Substantives. 

RULES FOR THE GENDER. 

I. In English, the Gender of Nouns is determined by the 
sex. Except child) neuter. 

II. Many Nouns are of the common gender, that is, mascu- 
ine or feminine, as friend, enemy. 

III. Some Masculines have appropriate Feminines. 

1. The Masculine and Feminine are unlike. 

2. The Masculine and Feminine differ in termination. 

3. The Masculine and Feminine differ by composition. — 

Thus, 

1. The Masculine and Feminine are unlike. 



Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


1. Bachelor 


Maid 


Horse 


Mare 


Beau 


Belle 


Husband 


Wife 


Boar 


Sow 


King 


Queen 


Boy 


Girl 


Lad 


Lass 


Brother 


Sister 


Lord 


Lady 


Buck 


Doe 


Man 


Woman 


Bull 


Cow 


Master 


Mistress 


Cock 


Hen 


Milter 


Spawner 


Dog 


Bitch 


Nephew 


Niece 


Drake 


Duck 


Ram 


Ewe 


Earl 


Countess 


Sloven 


Slut 


Father 


Mother 


Son 


Daughter 
Hind 


Friar 


Nun 


Stag 


Gander 


Goose 


Steer 


Heifer 


Gentleman 


Lady 


Uncle 
1 Wizard 


Aunt 


Hart 


Roe 


Witch 



* Remark. — The word Person has in Accidence three distinct meanings. 1st. it signifies the 
Person of the subject, or Nominative to the Verb, in which case it is common to all Nominatives, 
as in the above definitions. 2dly, it distinguishes Rational Beings from such as are Irrational, in 
■which sense tcho is said to relate to Persons, and which to Inferior Animals, or Inanimate Things. 
3dly, it distinguishes Animate from Inanimate Objects, as when we say that an Impersonal Verb i* 
that which has its Nominative always a Thing, and never a Person. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



27 



2. The Masculine and Feminine differ in termination. 



Masc. 

Abbot 

Actor 

Administrator 

Adulterer 

Ambassador 

Arbiter 

Author 

Baron 

Bridegroom 

Benefactor 

Caterer 

Chanter 

Conductor 

Count 

Deacon 

Duke 

Elector 

Emperor 

Enchanter 

Executor 

Governor 

Heir 

Hero 

Hunter 



Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Abbess 


Host 


Hostess 


Actress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Administratrix 


Landgrave 


Landgravine 


Adultress 


Lion 


Lioness 


Ambassadress 


Margrave 


Margravine 


Arbitress 


Marquis 


Marchioness 


Authoress 


Mayor 


Mayoress 


Baroness 


Patron 


Patroness 


Bride 


Peer 


Peeress 


Benefactress 


Poet 


Poetess 


Cateress 


Priest 


Priestess 


Chantress 


Prince 


Princess 


Conductress 


Prior 


Prioress 


Countess 


Prophet 


Prophetess 


Deaconess 


Protector 


Protectress 


Duchess 


Songster 


Songstress 


Electress 


Sorcerer 


Sorceress 


Empress 


Sultan 


Sultan -a or -ess 


Enchantress 


Tiger 


Tigress 


Executrix 


Traitor 


Traitress 


Governess 


Tutor 


Tutoress 


Heiress 


Viscount 


Viscountess 


Heroine 


Votary 


Votaress 


Huntress 


Widower 


Widow 



The Masculine and Feminine differ by composition. 



3. A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow 
A peacock A peahen 

A dog-fox A bitch-fox 

A he-boar A she-bear 



A he-cat A she-cat 

A he-goat A she-goat 

A man-servant A maid-servant 

A male child A female child 



RULES FOR THE PLURAL. 

I. The Plural of English Nouns terminates in s, es, ies, or ves. 

1 . The Plural is generally formed b} T adding 5 to the singular. 

2. If the singular end in c h soft, 5, ss, or x, the Plural is 

formed bv adding es. The termination o has some- 
times s and sometimes es. 

3. The termination y is changed into ies, and f or fe into 

ves in the plural, as enemies-, loaves, wives. Bat y pre- 
ceded by a vowel is not changed, as boy, boys. 

II. The Singular and Plural are sometimes alike; as, Alms, 
amends, deer, means, news, pains, riches, sheep, swine ; also ethics, 
mathematics, metaphysics, optics, pneumatics, politics. 

III. Some Nouns are defective, having only one number, as 

1. Singular — gratitude, zoisdom, wheat, pitch, gold, #c. 

2. Plural — scissors, bellows, lungs, ashes, thanks, fyc. 

IV. Proper names want the plural. 

V. Several foreign, ancient, and indigenous names, vary from 
the preceding rules, and form their plurals irregularly, as 

Grief, griefs; relief, reliefs; reproof, reproofs; child, children; brother* 
brothers, or brethem ; man, men ; woman, women ; alderman, aldermen ; ox, 

E 2 oxen; 



28 ETYMOLOGY. 

oxen; foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; die, dice, or dies \ 
penny, pence or pennies ; brother-in-law, brothers-in-law ; daughter-in-law, 
daughters-in-law; son-in-law, sons-in-law ; cousin-german, cousins-german. 
Antithesis, antitheses; apparatus, apparatus; appendix, appendices or ap- 
pendixes ; arcanum, arcana; automaton, automata; axis, axes; basis, bases ; 
beau, beaux; cherub, cherubim; calx, calces; crisis, crises; criterion, criteria ; 
datum, data; diagresis, diaereses; effluvium, effluvia; ellipsis, ellipses; em- 
phasis, emphases; encomium, encomia; erratum, errata; genius, genii or 
geniuses; genus, genera; hypothesis, hypotheses; hiatus, hiatus; index, in- 
dices or indexes; lamina, laminae; , literati; magus, magi; medium, 

media; memorandum, memoranda; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; minu- 
tia, minutiae; Monsieur, Messieurs ; phenomenon, phaenomena ; radius, radii ; 
seraph, seraphim ; series, series; species, species ; stamen, stamina ; stratum, 
strata; vortex, vortices. 

RULES FOR THE CASES. 

I. The Possessive Case is formed by adding 's or ' to the 
Nominative. 

1. The Possessive Singular generally ends in ? s ; but when 

the Nominative ends in s, x, or z, and especially in ss, 
the s is sometimes omitted, but the apostrophe ' 
retained. 

2. The Possessive Plural adds only an apostrophe ' to the 

Nominative in s ; when the Nominative does not end 
in s, the Possessive has 's. 

3. The Possessive Case is generally wanting in Common 

Nouns which have but one number. 

4. The Possessive Case is most commonly supplied by 

the Preposition of before the Noun. 

II. The Objective Case is always like the Nominative. 

EXAMPLES. 
1. Without an Article. 



i{ 



Norn. Man . p-AW Men 

Poss. Man's ^ << Poss. Men's 

Obj. Man * Wbj. Men 

2. With the Indefinite Article. 

Norn. A King fi rNom. Kings 

Poss. A King's ~§ -< Poss. Kings' 

Obj. A King * Wbj. Kings 

3. With the Definite Article. 



. rNom. The Mother . rNom. The Mothers 

Si Poss. The Mother's J<!Poss. The Mothers' 

00 Wbj. The Mother * l Obj. The Mothers 

Some Compound Nouns are thus declined. 

. rNom. The Lord Mayor of London ± rNom. The Lords Mayor of Londxm 
c^ Poss. The Lord Mayor of London s3. < Poss. The Lords Mayor of London's 
™ L Obj. The Lord Mayor of London * L Obj. The Lords Mayor 'of London* 

{Nom. A Son-in-law c rNom Sons-in-law 
Poss. A Son-in-law's £ < Poss. Sons-in-lav's 
Obj. A Son-in-law * , Obj. ——Sons-in-law 

* This plural is, perhaps, never to be met with, as two or more Lords Mayor of London never 
exist at the same time; yet the form of the plural may be propei, however uncommon ; as in to* 
case of the nine drchom of Athens, the tuo £.ih°$ of Sparta, ©r the two Consuls of Rome* 



ETYMOLOGY. 



29 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 



In respect of Declension, Pronouns are of three kinds ; viz. 
Declinable by number and cases, Variable on account of num- 
ber only, and Indeclinable. 

1. The Declinable Pronouns are I, thou, he, she, it, who, 
which, one, other. — Thus : 



. r Nom. 
Jf 'J Poss. 
<*lObj. 


I 

Mine 

Me 


j rNom. 
J < Poss. 
* Wbj. 


We 

Our's 

Us 


. r Nom. 
S?J Poss. 
* Wbj. 


Thou 
Thine 
Thee 


... r Nom. 
M { Poss. 
* l Obj. 


Ye, you 

Your's 

You 


~ r Nom. 
Mi Poss. 
«>\Obj. 


He 
His 
Him 


. rNom* 
M<Poss. 
* l Obj. 


They 

Their's 

Them 


. f Nom» 
^ J Poss. 
* \Obj. 


She 

Hep's 

Her 


.. rNom. 
-» < Poss. 
** l Obj. 


They 

Their's 

Them 


. r Nom. 
>J Poss. 
*Wbj. 


It 

It's 

It 


. rNom. 
M < Poss. 


They 

Their's 

Them 


. r Nom. 
&i Poss. 
*> IObj. 


Who 

Whose 

Whom 


^ rNom. 
-3 ■) Poss. 
*■ [ Obj. 


Who 

Whose 

Whom 


. r Nom. 
* I Poss. 
* IObj. 


Which 

Whose* of which 

Which 


. rNo?n. 
J < Poss. 
* l Obj. 


Which 

Whose, of which 

Which 


. r A r o??j. 
^ Poss. 

83 Wbj. 


One 

One's 
One 


. rNom. 

jj < POSS. 

* Wbj. 


Ones 

Ones' 
Ones 


. r Nom. 
%>J Poss. 
* Wbj. 


Other 

Other's 

Other 


~ rNom. 
•3 < Poss. 
* [ Obj. 


Others 
Others' 
Others f 



• Note.— That whose is seldom used as the Possessive of which. 



i ZVbfe.—That one and other are declinable when used substantive!^ but indeclinable when 
used adjecUvely, 



so 



ETYMOLOGY. 



The Pronouns variable on account of Number, are the 
following : viz. 



Singular. 

Myself 
Thyself 
Himself 

3 I Herself 

£ [itself 

Each 
Every 
t Either 
& < Neither 
This 
That 
Whether 



Plural. 

Ourselves 

Yourselves 

Themselves 

Themselves 

Themselves 

All 
All 
Both 

These 

Those 



3. The Indeclinable Pronouns are, 1st. all the Possessives, 
viz. my, mine, or my own ; thy, thine, or thy oxvn ; his, or his 
own ; her, hers, or her own ; our, ours, or our own ; your, yours, or 
your own ; their, theirs, or their own ; 2dly the Relatives, that 
and zvhat ; and 3dly the Indefinites, any, some, none, such ; to- 
gether with same, Demonstrative. 



OF ADJECTIVES. 



Adjectives are Indeclinable; but some of them have only a 
Singular, and others only a Plural signification ; as 

1. Singular. — One, single, infinite, universal, much. 

2. Plural. — Two, three, four, &c. few, many, several, more. 
Adjectives admit of comparison ; except such as signify im- 
mensity, supremacy, perfection, or an absolute quality. 

I. The Positive Degree does not change the form of the 
Adjective. 

II. In general, Adjectives are compared by prefixing to 
them the words more or less, to form the comparative ; and 
most, very, or least, to form the superlative. 

III. Adjectives, being Monosyllables and Dissyllables, end- 
ing in y, also form the Comparative, by adding r or er, and the 
Superlative, by adding st or est to the Positive. 

IV. Indefinite Comparison is made by prefixing the words 
somewhat, little, still, nearly, almost, so, too, exceedingly, and 
others, to the Adjective. Also by adding the termination is* 
to the Positive. 

V. Double Comparisons are improper. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



SI 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



5. Positive. 


Comparative, 


Superlative* 


Good 


Better 


Best 


Bad 


Worse 


Worst 


Much, many 


More 


Most 


Little 


Less 


Least 


Late 


Later, 


Latest, last 


T.atfpr 




Last 
Eldest, oldest 


Old 


Elder, older 




Former 
Hinder 
Uppei 


First 

Hindermost 

Uppermost 










Nether 

Inner 

Outer 


Nethermost 

Innermost 

Outermost 

T /HB«rmn!f 


* 






T nivpr 


The following Adjectives admit not of Comparison. 


Almighty 


Free 


Reverend 


Certain 


Full 


Right 


Chief 


Godly 


Royal 


Circular 


Golden 


Safe 


Conscious 


Gratuitous 


Serene 


Continual 


Heavenly 


Solid 


Dead 


Human 


Sound 


Earthly 


Infinite 


Square 


Empty 


Lawful 


Subject 


Extreme 


Leaden 


Supreme 


Eternal 


Living 


Triangular 


Everlasting 


Natural 


True 


False 


Paternal 


Universal 


Filial 


Perfect 


Void 


Fluid 


Perpetual 





Note. — That latter seems to be positive, becausa it is never used in compariaon, and becaus* 
adverbs in ly, as latterly, are never derived from comparatives in er. 



32 ETYMOLOGY, 



ACCIDENCE OF VERBS. 

Definitions. 

I. Voice is that form of the verb which distinguishes action 
from passion, or doing from suffering. 

J . The Active Voice shews the doing of an action. 
%. The Passive Voice shews the suffering of an action. 

II. Mood, or Mode, is a particular form of the verb, 
shewing the manner in which the being, action, or passion, is 
represented. 

1. The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares the 

attribute or quality of the verb, or it asks a question. 

2. The Potential Mood implies possibility, liberty, power, 

will, or obligation. 

3. The Subjunctive Mood, so called because it is gene- 

rally preceded by another verb, as well as by a con- 
junction, expresses a condition, motive, wish, doubt, 
or supposition. 

4. The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, ex- 

horting, in treating, or permitting. 

5. The Infinitive Mood expresses the meaning of the 

verb indefinitely, that is, without any immediate re- 
ference to number or person.* 

III. Tense is the distinction of time. 

1. The Present Tense represents an action or event as 

passing at the time it is mentioned. 

2. The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event 

either as finished or past, or as remaining unfinished, 
at a certain time past. 

3. The Perfect Tense represents an action or event as past 

or finished. 

4. The Pluperfect Tense represents an action or event as 

finished or past antecedently to some other past action 
or event. 

5. The First Future Tense represents an action or event 

as yet to come, the time of the action or event being 
either definite or indefinite. 



Note.— The Accidents of Verbs are five, viz. Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. There 
ftre two Voices, the Active and Passive; rive Moods, the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Impe- 
rative, and Infinitive ; six Tenses, the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, and First and Second 
futures; two Numbers, the Singular and Plural; and three Persons, the First, Second, and 
Third. 

* See the Preface, which contains some remarks on the Infinitive Mood. 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

6. The Second Future Tense intimates that the action or 
event will be fully accomplished at or before the time 
of another future action or event. 

IV. Number is that form which Verbs have in agreement 
with the leading subjects of discourse, considered as one or 
more. 

1 . The Singular Number is that form of the Verb which 

agrees with a Singular Nominative. 

2. The Plural Number is that form of the Verb which 

agrees with a Plural Nominative. 

V. Person is that form which Verbs have in agreement 
with the leading subjects of discourse, considered as speaking, 
spoken of, or spoken to. 

1. The First Person agrees with the Person or Persons 

speaking, and follows the sign I, or We. 

2. The Second Person agrees with the Person or Persons 

spoken to, and follows the sign Thou, Ye, or You, or 
any Noun preceded by an Interjection. 

3. The Third Person agrees with the Person, Persons, 

Thing or Things spoken of, and follows the sign He, 
or They, or any other word except I, We, Thou, Ye, 
or You, 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The Conjugation of Verbs is the rightly putting together of 
their several parts, according to Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, 
and Person. 

The Conjugation of an Active Verb is termed the Active 
Voice, and that of a Passive Verb, the Passive Voice. 

A Regular Verb forms the Imperfect of the Indicative and 
the Perfect Participle in ed or d. 

An Irregular Verb forms the Imperfect of the Indicative 
and the Perfect Participle, or one of them, in some other ter- 
mination than ed or d. 

A Defective Verb is used only in some of its Moods and 
Tenses. 

An Impersonal Verb is used only in the third Person Sin- 
gular, and has its Nominative always a Thing, and never a 
Person. 

An Auxiliary Verb is that which is used, or assists, in the 
conjugation of other verbs, as do, have, be, will, shall, may, can. 



* The only Accidents common to Nouns, Pronouns, and Verbs, are those of Number and Person, 
Verbs having no Accidents ot Gender and Case, and Kouns and Pronouns having none of Voice, 
Mood, and Tens«. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



RULES FOR THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

3. There is in English but one Conjugation of Verbs. The division of 
verbs into active, passive, and neuter, and into regular and irregular, forms 
no exception to the rule. The distinction of regular and irregular takes 
place only in the Active Voice or form. 

2. All Moods have not an equal number of Tenses. The Indicative ha*, 
six Tenses, the Potential four, the Infinitive two, and the Imperative one.—. 
The Subjunctive Mood in its first form has six Tenses, and in its second 
four, analogically to the Indicative and Potential forms. 

3. Those Tenses which have a simple form are the Present and Imperfect 
Tenses of the Indicative and 1st Subjunctive Moods/ iie Second Person of 
the Present of the Imperative, and the Present of the Infinitive. 

4. The Compound Tenses are, the Perfect, Pluperfect, and First and Se- 
cond Futures, in whatever Mood they be. 

5. The Simple Tenses may be changed into a compound form, but the 
Compound Tenses cannot be changed into a simple form. 

6. The Signs do, shall, will, may, can, require to be followed by the Present of 
the Infinitive of the principal verb ; — the sign be is followed by either the 
present or perfect participle, and the sign have is followed only by the perfect 
participle. These signs are 

7. Passive Verbs have no simple Tenses— they are conjugated with the 
help of the verb to be. 

8; In Neuter Verbs the form of the conjugation generally agrees with 
that of Active verbs; — sometimes it is Passive. 

9. The Second Person Singular of verbs ends in st, or t, except in the Im- 
perative, and first three Tenses of the 1st Subjunctive The third Person 
singular of the Present of the Indicative ends in s or th. The other Persons 
are like the first, in the several Tenses. 

10. In the Compound Tenses of Irregular Verbs, the form of the Imperfect 
of the Indicative is sometimes improperly used for the Perfect Participle — as 
I have wrote, for / have written — / have shook, for / have shaken. 

11. The Present Participle ends always in ing, the Perfect Participle in 
ed, t, or n. A few Participles end in w/and ?ik. The Participle of come is 
come — and a few others may be equally irregular. 

12. The terminations ch, ck, p, x, 11, ss, of the Present, sometimes change 
ed of the Imperfect Tense, or of the Perfect Participle into t, as snacht, pluckt, 
snapt,fixt, dwelt, past. The same thing happens after the terminations /, m t 
n, p, preceded by a diphthong, the diphthong moreover being shortened, as 
in dealt, dreamt", slept. Likewise the termination ve is changed into ft, as 
bereave, bereft, leave, left. 

13. Irregular Verbs are found to be for the most part monosyllabic— ori- 
ginally, perhaps, they are all so. 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES OF ENGLISH VERBS. 

There are properly but three Tenses or Times, the Past, Present, and Fu- 
ture, although each of these admits of modifications in the signification, and 
generally in the form. 

1. The Tenses, with respect both to time and action, are definite or 
indefinite, as 



t. I love 


I am loving 


I do love 


I have loved 


:. / loved 


I wp,s loving 


I did love 


I had loved 


I shall love 


I shall be loving 


I icill love 


I shall have loved. 



But that which is of itself indefinite may become definite by the addition 
of adverbs, or known circumstances, to the sentence. And sometimes defi- 
nites and indefinites are used promiscuously by the agreement of the Indica- 
tive and Subjunctive forms of the Verb or by the licence of rhetoric. 

2. The Tenses Indefinite, by themselves, as to time and action, are these 

[ love I do love 

I loved I did love 

I shall love I will love 

The signs do, did, and will, are termed Emphatic. 

3. The following Tenses are Indefinite, by themselves, as to time, but De- 
finite as to action 

I am loving I have loved 

I was loving I had loved 

I shall be loving I shall have loved 

The former shew the progress of an action, the latter its accomplish- 
ment. 

4. The two forms of the First Future are not to be used indiscriminately. 

I shall love I will love 

Thou wilt love- Thou sbalt love 

He will love He shall love 

We shall love We will love 

Ye will love Ye shall love 

They will love They shall love 

The first form. 7 shall love, &c. affirmatively, denotes simple futurity; but 
interrogatively, it denotes futurity, with necessity, duty, or obligation. 

The second form, I will love, &c. on the contrary, used affirmatively, de- 
notes futurity, with necessity, duty, obligation, or choice—but interroga- 
tively, simple futurity. 

Lastly, Shall is used in all the persons, when they are represented as the 
subjects of their own thoughts or expressions, as do you think j ou shall fmd 
it V Does he say he shall come ? He says he shall come. 

5. The signs may, can, shall, will, form absolute tenses ; might, could, would, 
should, form tenses sometimes absolute, and sometimes conditional. May 
and might, express liberty; can and could, power and ability. Shall and zcUl 
have been explained above, in Article 4, 

F 2 



CONJUGATION of an ACTIVE VERB, 



TO LOVE. 



ijft 






L3. 



it 






£J2. 

3 18. 

si* 

ft. 13. 



INDICATIVE 3JOOD. 

Present Tense. 

. I love, or do love 
Thuu lovest, or dost love 
. He loveth, or does love 

. We love, or do love 
. Ye love, or do love 
. They love, or do love 

Freterimperfect Tense. 

. I loved, or did love 
Thou lovedst, or didst love 
He loved, or did love 

We loved, or did love 
, Ye loved, or did love 
They loved, or did love 

Preterperfect Tense. 

I have loved 
Thou hast loved 
He has loved 

We have loved 
Ye have loved 
They have loved 

Pretcr pluperfect Tense. 

I had loved 
Thou hadst loved 
He had lo\ed 

We had loved 
Ye had loved 
They had loved 

First Future Tense. 



WE 

• Is. 



It 



1. 1 shall or will love , 

. Thou shalt or wilt love 
3. He shall or will love 

1. We shall or will love 

2. Ye shall or will love 

3. They shall or wiii love 

Second Future Tense. 



1. I shall have loved 
hou wilt hi*;e loved 
e will have loved 

1. We shall have loved 

2. Ye will have loved 
*« L$: They will have loved 



l. is 

SpJ 2. Ti 
^ 13. H 



ft 






s Is. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

. rl. I may or can love 
.k«J 2. Thou mayst or canst iove 
60 ^-3. He may or can love 

. rl. We may or can love 
1^2. Ye may or can love 
^ ^3* They may or can love 

Preterimperfect Tense. 

. I might, could, would, or should love 

. ThotTmightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love 

. He might, could, would, or should love 

. We might, could, would, or should love 
. Ye might, could, would, or should love 
. They might, could, would, or should love 

Preterperfect Tense. 

. rl.J may or can have loved 
.2<! 2. Thou mayst or canst have loved 
^ '-S. He may or can have loved 

. rl. We may or can have loved 
*<! 2. Ye may or can have loved 
^ *~3. They may or can have loved 

Preterpluperfect Tense. 

I might, could, would, or should 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 

He might, could, would, or should 

We might, could, would, or should 

Ye might, could, would, or should 

They might, ceuld, would, or should 



37 



CONJUGATION of an ACTIVE VERB. 



1st SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Present Tense* 

1. 1 love 
^2. Thou love 
* 13. He love. 

1. We love 
iJ 2. Ye love 
S 13. They love 

Preterimperfect Tense. 



I loved 
Thou loved 
S. He laved 



erf 

*• 1 3. They loved 



We loved 
Ye loved 



Preterperfect Tense. 

1. 1 have loved 

2. Thou have loved 

3. He have loved 



g rl. We have loved 
|H 2. Ye have loved 
S*. They have loved 



»{ 



TO LOVE. 

2d SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

{1. 1 may or can love 
2. Thou mayst or canst love 
3. He may or can love 



1. We may or can love 

2. Ye may or can love 

3. They may or can love 



. rl. 



Preterimperfect Tense. 

I might, could, would, or should love 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love 

He might, could, would, or should love 

We might, could, would, or should love 
Ye might, could, would, or should love 
They might, could, would, or shouid love 



The other Tenses of the Subjunctive are the same as the corresponding Tenses 
of the Indicative and Potential Moods. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



f 1. Let me love 
^>J 2. Love thou, or do thou love 
I 13. Let him love 

. A. Let us love 

s J 2. Love ye, or do ye love 



^ Is. Let them love 






INFINITIVE 


MOOD. 




Present Tense, 
Perfect Tense 


To love 
To have 


loved 


PARTICIPLES. 




Present 
Perfect 
Compound Terfect 


Loving 
Loved 
Having loved 



38 



CONJUGATION of a PASSIVE VERB. 



TO BE LOVED. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



•SI 2. 
«* IS. 



I am loved 
2. Thou art loved 
-3. He is loved 

,; 'r 1. We are loved 

-H *< 2. Ye are loved 
** l 3. They are loved 

Preterimperfect Tense. 

„• pi. I was loved 
.£ C< j 2. Thou wast loved 
^ "-3. He was loved 

. pi. We were loved 
.£ <; 2. Ye were loved 
^ 1-3. They were loved 

Preterperfect Tense. 

f 1. 1 have been loved 
§P«j 2. Thou hast been loved 
£ L3. He has been loved 



^ r 



1. We have been loved 



4j < % Ye have been loved 
^ *-S. They have been loved 

Preterpluperfect Tense. 

rl. I had been loved 
jW 2. Thou hadst been loved 
£ «-3. He had been loved 



1. We had been loved 



j^pj 2. Ye had been loved 
<2 13. Thev had been loved 



a, I: 



Ffrrf Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will be loved 

2. Thou shall or wilt be loved 
& 13. He shall or will be loved 

1. We shall or will be loved 
<vj . Ye shall or will be loved 
<S Is. They shall or will be loved 

Second Future Tense. 

-1. 1 shall have been loved 
ji J 2. Thou wilt have been loved 
S 13. lie will have been loved 

r l. We shall have been loved 
&J 2. Ye will b;.ve been loved 
* Id. They will have been luved< 



POTENTIAL MOOD, 



Present Tense. 

1. I may or can be loved 

2. Thou mayst or canst be loved 

3. He may or can be loved 

. rl. We may or can be loved 
-I ■< 2. Ye may or can be loved 
** "-3. They may or can be loved 

Preterimperfezt Tense. 

I might, could, would, or should 

Thou mightst, couldsl, wouldst, or shouldst 

He might, could, would, or should 

We might, could, would, or should 
Ye might, could, would, or should 
They might, could, would, or should 

Preterperfect Tense, 

. rl. I may or can have been loved 
.t?-J 2. Thou mayst or canst have been loved 
08 '•S. He may or can have been loved 

. rl. We may or can have been loved 
^ < 2. Ye may or can have been loved 
^ ^3. They may or can have been loved 

Preterpluperfect Tense. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or should 
^ f 2. Thou mightst, cculdst, wouldst, or shouldst 
bq (^3. He might, could, would, or should 



• f 1 - 

- f 1 - 

£<;2. 
Ma. 



. 1. We might, could, would, or should 
Jl J 2. Ye might, could, would, or should 
^ LS. They might, could, would, or should 



.a 



39 



CONJUGATION of a PASSIVE VERB. 



1st SURJUNCTIVE. 



* 13, 
.If 1 ' 

•$«2. 

* is. 

-si 2 

^3 

Sis 2 



to/ 1 ' 
02 13. 



Present Tense. 

I be loved 
Thou be loved 
He be loved 
We be loved 
Ye be loved 
They be loved 

Preterimperfect Tense. 

I were loved 
Thou wert loved 
He were loved 
We were loved 
Ye were loved 
They were loved 

Preterperfect Tense. 

I have been loved 
Thou have been loved 
He have been loved 

, We have been loved 
Ye have been loved 
They have been loved 



TO BE LOVED. 

£f/ SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

. (-1. 1 may or can be loved 
.gN 2. Thou mayst or canst be loved 
02 ^3. He may or can be loved 



1 



may 

r 1. We may or can be loved 
2. Ye may or can be loved 



3. They may or can be loved 
Preterimperfect Tense. 



^r 1 

•5«2 

^ U 



c ri 



I might, could, wuuld, or should 1 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst ^ 
He might, could, would, or should I §£ 

We might, could, would, or should 
Ye might, could, would, or should 
They might, could, would, or should 



The other Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are the same as the corresponding 
Tenses of the Indicative and Potential Moods. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



* 13. 



1 . Let me be loved 
Be thou loved 
Let him be loved 



^ . 1. Let us be loved 

.5<! 2. Be ye loved 

*" 13. Letthem be loved 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense 
Ferject Tense 



To be loved 

To have been loved 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present Being loved 

Perfect Loved 

Compound Perfect Having been loved 



40 
AUXILIARY VERBS and 



1. TO DO. 






INDICATIVE MOOD, 

Present Tense. 

l.Ido 

2. Thou doest, dost 

3. He doeth, does 

1. We do 

£<2. Ye do 
"' L 3. They do 

Preterimperfect Tense. 
1. I did 



j£< 2. Thou didst 



3 I 



3. He did 



,: rl. We did 
gH 2. Ye did 
^ L 3. They did 

Preterperfect Tense. 

I have done 
Thou hast done 
3. He has done 

C ft- We have done 
;5 •< 2. Ye have dor>e 
* L 3. They have done » 

Preter pluperfect Tense. 

1. 1 had done 
Thou hadst done 
He had done 

.1. We had done 
2* Ye had done 
- ' I s. They had done 



01 is. 



£ fi- 
ll 2 - 



Few? Future Tense. 
1, 1 shall or will do 

2. Thou shalt or wilt do 

3. He shall or will do 

We shall or will do 

Ye shall or will do 

3. They shall or will do 

Second Future Tense. 
1. 1 shall have done 

2. Thou wilt have done 

3. He will have done 

We shall have done 
have done 
ill have done 



rl. Wesha 
<^ 2. Ye will 
1 3. Thev wi 



r 1 - 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

• rl. I may or can do 
.* < 2. Thou mayst or canst do 
00 ^3. He may or can do 

. rl. We may or can do 
^ s 2. Ye may or can do 
** 1-3. They may or can do 

Preterimperfect Tense. 
I might, could, would, or should do 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst d« 
'<% 13. He might, could, would, or should do 

1. We might, could, would, or should do 
Ye might, could, would, or should do 
They might, could, would, or should do 

Preterperfect Tense. 

- rl. I may or can have done 

g< 2. Thou mayst or canst have done 

00 ^3. He may or can have done 

^ C 1 . We may or can have done 
►S < 2 Ye may or can have done 
^ ^3. They may or can have done 

Preterpluperfect Tense. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or should 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 2 
2. He might, could, would, or should I -% 

. rl. We might, could, would, or should 
il < 2. Ye might, could, would, or should 
** 1 3. They might, could, would, or should 






!{ 



Note. — As an Auxiliary, the verb to Do is used only in the Tenses, do and did, of the Indicative, 
Subjunctive, and Imperative, in which last it is Jouuued only in the Secoud Person. 



41 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. 



1st SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Tense. 



*ri. 
ft?- 



I do 

Thou do 
3. He do 

g rl.Wedo 
-2^2. Ye do 
* L 3. They do 



*5 J 



Preterimperfect Tense. 

1. 1 did 

2. Thou did 



3. He did 

. A. We did 
4<f 2. Ye did 

*» Is. 



They did 
Preterperfect Tense. 



1. 1 have done 
If J2. Thou have done 
^ IS. He have done 



1. We have done 
Ye have done 
**< 13. They have done 






1. TO DO: 
4 2rf SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

. rl. Tmay or can do 
.5 s 2. Thou may st or canst do 
80 ^3. He may or can do 

^ rl. We may or can do 
•g < 2. Ye may or can do 
^ t-3. They may or can do 

Preterimperfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or should do 
|pj 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst do 
2 L3. He might, could, would, or should do 

1. We might, could, would, or should do 

2. Ye miglit, could, would, or should do 
a, i 3. They might, could, would, or should do 



Vi 



The other Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are the same as the corresponding 
Tenses of the Indicative and Potential Moods. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



«8 1 



1. Let me do 

2. Do thou 

3. Let him do 
,. rl. Let us do 

H 2. Do ye 

* l 3. Let them do 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense 
Perfect Tense 



To do 

To have done 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present 
Perfect 
Compound Perfect 



Doing 
Done 
Having done 



J?'^ S T °* DO m r ay be COnjU ? a ted any Irre K lli « r V "b of three tcimiuati-ons ; as Izcrite, 
S&£ &5£&R £ iSSSZ* " *** V «* U ' e di ®*«™ *«■"- **E and 



42 
AUXILIARY VERBS and 



2. TO HAVE. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



M 



1. 1 have 

2. Thou hast 

3. He has or hath 



^ rl. We have 



l 3. They have 



g i 2. Ye have 



Preterimperfect Tense. 



ti 



I had 
!X 2. Thou hadst 
* 1-3. He had 



15 13. 



$ 13. 



1. We had 

Ye had 
They had 

Preterperfect Tense. 

1. 1 have had 
Thou hast had 
He has or hath had 

1. We have had 



J i 2. Ye have had 
S 13. They have had 

P ret er pluperfect Tense. 

. f l. I had had 

I? J 2. Thou hadst had 
<Z 1 3. He had had 

. f l. We had had 
^J 2. Ye had had 
*« b. They had had 

First Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will have 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 

3. He shall or will have 

1. We shall or will have 
* J 2. Ye shall or will have 
M3. They shall cr will have 



l{ 



Second Future Tense. 

I shall have had 

2. Thou wilt have had 

3. He will have had 



. 1. We shall have had 
jj J 2. Ye will have had 
M3. They will have had 



£<2 

£ Is 






3. 
1. 
IN*. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

. r 1. 1 may or can have 
J <! 2. Thou mayst or canst have 
50 t-3. He may or can have 

■ rl. We may or can have 
^ < 2. Ye may or can have 
<-3. They may or can have 

Preterimperfect Tense. 

I might, could, would, or should have 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst havi 

He might, could, would, or should have 

We might, could, would, or should have 
Ye might, could, would, or should have 
They might, could, would, or should have 

• Preterperfect Tense. 

. rl. I may or can have had 
.gs 2. Thou mayst or canst have had 
02 *-3. He may or can have had 

^ rl. We may or can have had 
•£ ■< 2. Ye may or can have had 
^3. Thev may or can have h 



had 



Preterpluperfect Tense.. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or should 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
He might, could, would, or should 



^J 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
« 1 2. 

1. We might, could, would, or should 
j| JQ. Ye might, could, would, or should 
^ 13. They might, could, would, or should 



4* 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. 



2. TO HAVE. 



1st SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Tense, 

1. 1 have 
2. Thou have 
-3. He have 



. f l. We have 
gJ2. Ye have 
^13. They have 

Vreterimperfect Tense, 



qq 



bo 



1.1 had 
2. Thou had 
°3 13. He had 

. r l. We had 

I <! 2. Ye had 
^ 1 3. They had 






Preterperfcct Tense. 

1. I have had 

2. Thou have had 

3. He have had 



1. 

2. 
i 13. 

1. 



•I 

1 13. 



2d SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD* 

Present Tense. 

^ r 1. 1 may or can have 

J -< 2. Thou mayst or canst have 

63 "-3. He may or can have 

| .' r 1; We may or can have 
41 <! 2. Ye may or can have 
** ^3. They may or can have 

Preterimperfeet Tense. 

I might, could, would, or should have 

Thou mightst,couldst,wouldst,or shouldsthave 

He might, could, would, or should have 

We might, could, would, or should have 
Ye might, could, would, or should have 
They might, could, would, or should have 



. 1 . We have had 
js J 2. Ye have had 
°- 13. They have had 

The other Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are th ame as the corresponding 
Tenses of the Indicative and Potential Moods. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



Ml 

« u 



Let me have 

Have thou or do thou have 
3. Let him have 



^ rl. Let us have 

il < 2. Have ye, or do ye have 

^ 1 -3. Let them have 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 
Perfect Tense 



To have 
To have had 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present- 
Perfect 

Compound Perfect 
G I 



Having 
Had 
Having had 



44 
AUXILIARY VERBS and 



3. TO BE. 



if' 

It! 



• r 1 - 

«3 Is. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

1. lam 

2. Thou art 

3. He is 

^ fl. We are 
a* l 2. Ye are 
L 3. They are 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. 1 was 
. Thou wast 
He was 

c rl; We were 
g < 2. Ye were 
M l3. They were 

Perfect Tense. 

1. 1 have been 

2. Thou hast been 

3. He has been 

^ r 1. We have been 
^ < 2. Ye have been 
1-3. They have been 

Preterpluperfect Tense. 

^ r 1. 1 had been 

.§ S 2. Thou hadst been 

00 L 3. He had been 

. rl. We had been 
^ < 2. Ye had been 
°* l 3. They had been 



80 I: 



.Firrf Future Tense. 



1. 1 shall or will be 

Thou shalt or wilt be 
3. He shall or will be 



Is. 



^ f 1. We shall or will be 
^ «{ 2. Ye shall or will be 



3. They shall or will be 
Second Future Tense. 



. I shall have been 
Thou wilt have been 
He will have been 

,1. We shall have been 

Ye will have been 
3- They will have- been 



it*. 

$ 13. 

• r 1 ' 
.1/2. 

M3. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



. rl. I may or can be 
.S s 2. Thou mayst or canst be 
00 '-3. He may or can be 

,* f 1- We may or can be 
.2 < 2. Ye may or can be 



It 



3. They may or can be 

Preterimperfect Tense. 



til 



• r 1 

*1j 



I might, could, would, or should be 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be 

He might, could, would, or should be 

We might, could, would, or should be 
Ye migut, could, would, or should be 
They might, could, would, or should be 

Preterperfect Tense. 

• rl. I may or can have been 
.« < 2. Thou mayst or canst have been 
00 ^3. He may or can have been 

^ rl. We may or can have been 
•3 -s 2. Ye may or can have been 
*• *-S. They may or can have been 

Preterpluperfect Tense. 

I might, could, would, or should 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 

He might, could, would, or should 

We might, could, would, or should 
Ye might, could, would, or should 
They might, could, would, or should 



45 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. 







3. TO BE. 


1st SUBJUNCTIVE. 




2d SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 




"Present Tense. 


. rl. Ibe 
.IN 2. Thou be 
* l 3.Hebe 




. rl. I may or can be 
.|x 2. Thou mayst or canst be 
^ ^3. He may or can be 


c r l. We be 

-5^2. Ye be 
* U. They be 




£ rl. We may or can be 

-2 < 2. Ye may or can be 
L-3. They may or can be 


Preterimperfect Tense. 




Preterimperfect Tense. 


• r l. I were 
IN 2. Thou wert 
00 13. He were 


k 

£ 


rl.l might, could, would, or should be 
2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be 
*3. He might, could, would, or should be 


^ ,1, We were 

^ <( 2. Ye were 
^ 13. They were 


r 


1. We might, could, would, or should be 

2. Ye might, could, would, or should be 
,3. They might, could, would, or should be 


Preterperfect Tense. 






. r l. I have been 
.r'J 2. Thou have been 
& 13. He have been 






g r 1. We have been 
^2-< 2. Ye have been 
^3. Thev have been 







The ether Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are the same as the corresponds 
Tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive Moods. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

- fl. Let me be 

.g < 2. Be thou, or do thou be 
* L 3. Let him be 

- rl. Let us be 

:g 1 2. Be ye, or do ye be 
^ L 3. Let them be 



INFINITIVE MOOD, 



Present Tense. 
Perfect Ttnse. 



To be 

To have been 



PARTICIPLES. 

Bein: 



Present. 
Perfect. 
Compound Perfect. 



Been 

Having been 



46 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. [Table VI. 





Where the Letter (r.) is added, the Verb has also 


a regular form. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Partic. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Partic. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Get 


20t, gat 


got, gotten 


Am 


was 


been 


Gild 


gilt (r.) 


gilt (r.) 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Gird 


girt (r.) 


girt (r.) 


Awake 


awoke (r.) 


awaked 


Give 


gave 


given 


Bear, bring forth bare 


born 


Go 


went 


gone 


Bear, carry 


bore 


borne 


Grave 


graved 


graven 


Beat 


beat 


beat, beaten 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Bend 


bent (r.) 


bent (r.) 


Have 


had 


had 


Bereave 


bereft (r.) 


bereft (?-.) 


Hang 


hung (r.) 


hung (r.) 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 
bid, bidden 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Bid 


bid, bade 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn (?'.) 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Hide 


hid 


hid, hidden 


Bite 


bit 


bit, bitten 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Hold 


held 


held 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Knit 


knit (r.) 


knit (r.) 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Know 


knew 


known 


Build 


built (r.) 


built 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Lead 


led 


led 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Leave 


left 


left 


Catch 


caught (r.) 


caucht (r.) 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Chide 


chid 


chid, chidden 


Let 


let 


let 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Lie (lie dozen) lay 


lain 


Cleave, adhere 


clave (r.) 


cleaved 


Load 


loaded 


laden (r.) - 


Cleave, split 


clove, cleft 


cloven, cleft 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Make 


made 


made 


Clothe 


clothed 


clad (r.) 


Meet 


met 


met 


Come 


came 


come 


Mow 


mowed 


mown 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Crow 


crew (r.) 


crowed 


Put 


put 


put 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Quit 


quit (r.) 


quit 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Read 


read 


read 


Dare, venture 


durst 


dared 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Dare, challenge. 


(>') 


(r.) 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Deal 


dealt (r.) 


dealt (r.) 


Ride 


rode 


iode, ridden 


Dig 


dug (r.) 


dug (r.) 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Do 


did 


done 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Draw- 


drew 


drawn 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Run 


ran 


run 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn (r.) 


Dwell 


dwelt (r.) 


dwelt (r.) 


Say 


said 


said 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


See 


saw 


seen 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Feed 


ted 


fed 


Seethe 


seethed, sod sodden 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Find 


found 


found 


Set 


set 


set 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Shape 


shaped 


shr.pen (r.) 


Fly ' 


flew 


flown 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven (r.) 


Forget 


forgot 


forgot, forgotten 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Shine 


shone (r.) 


shone 



Table 


VI.] LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 47 




Where the Letter (r.) is added, the Verb has also a regular 


form. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Per/. Partic. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Pariic. 


Show 


showed 


shown 


Stink 


stunk 


Stunk 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Stride 


strode, strid 


stridden 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


Shrink 


shrunk 


shrunk 


String 


strung 


strung 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Strow 


strowecl 


strow n (r,) 


Sing 


sang, sung 
sank, sunk 


sung 


Strew 


strewed 


strewed 


Sink 


sunk 


Swear 


swore, sware sworn 


Sit 


sat 


sat, sitten 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen (r.) 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 
sliddea 


Swim 


swam, swurr 


i swum 


Slide 


slid 


Swing 


swung 


swung. 


Sling 
Slink 


slang, slung 


slung 


Take 


took 


taken 


slunk 


slunk 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Slit 


slit (r.) 


slit (r.) 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Tell 


tckl 


told 


Sow 


sowed 


sown (r.) 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken 


Thrive 


throve (r.) 


thriven 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Spill 


spilt 


spilt 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen (/•.) 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit, spitten 


Wear 


were 


worn 


Split 


split 


split 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Spring 


sprang, sprun 


g sprung 


Win 


won 


won 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Wind 


wound 


wound 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Work 


wrought (r.) 


wrought (r.) 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Wring 


wrung (r.) 


wrung (■;■.} 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Write 


wrote 


written' 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 



OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

A few Verbs are Defective. Some of them are used chiefly 
as Auxiliaries, as / will, I shall, I may, I can ; others may be 
accounted Principals, as I must, I ought.* They are thus con- 
jugated. 

1. I Witt. 

Present. I will, thou wilt, he will ; We will, ye will, they will, 
Imperfect* I would, thou wouldst, he would; We would, ye 
would, they would. 

2. I Shall. 

Present. I shall, thou shalt, he shall; We shall, ye shall, thev 

shall. 
Imperfect, I should, thou shouldst, he should ; We should, ye 

should, they should. 
3 I May. 
Present. I may, thou mayst, he may ; We may, ye may, they 

may. 
Imperfect. I might, thou mightst, he might; We might, ye 

might, they might. 
4. / Can. 
Present. I can, thou canst, he can ; We can, ye can, they 

can. 
Imperfect. I could, thou couldst, thou could ; We could, ye 

could, they could. 
5. I Must. 
Present. Sc 7 I must, thou must, he must; We must, ye must, 
Perfect, j" thev must.f 

G. I Ought. 
Present & 7 I ought, thou oughtst, he ought ; We ought, ye 
Perfect. J ought, they ought. 



OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

An Impersonal Verb is thus conjugated. Example, 
To Freeze. 

Indicative. — It freezes, it froze, it has frozen, it had frozen, 
it will freeze, it will have frozen. — Potential. It may or can 
freeze; it might, could, would, or should freeze ; it may or can 
have frozen; it might, could, would, or should have frozen.-- 
Subjunctive. — It freeze, or may or can freeze, &c. — Infinitive. 
To freeze, to have frozen.— Participles. Freezing, frozen, hav- 
ing frozen. 

* Note 1 .— The old Defectives quoth, wit, and sis, are nearly, it' not entiiel}', obsolete. See 
Johnson'* Dictionary 

+ Note 1. — That Mvxt and Qi/ght arc of the Present or Perfect Tense, according as the Infinitives 
which they jrovero are of the Prevent or Perfect Tense, as I must urUe, I aught to vrite, I must 
haic uri'.ten, I ought to have written. 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 



OF PARTICIPLES. 

Participles do not admit of Declension or Comparison. 
When used as Substantives, they are sometimes called Ge- 
rundives; and when used as Adjectives, Participials. When 
used as Adjectives, they may be compared. There are six 
Participles, three Active, and three Passive; thus, 

Participles Active. Participles Passive. 

Present. Loving. Present. Being loved. 

Perfect. Loved. Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect. Having loved. Comp. Perfect. Having been loved. 

The Participle in ing, preceded by the particle a, has some- 
thing of a middle signification ; as, " There were added to 
the church daily such as were a-saving *." The two simple 
forms of the Participle, as loving and loved, although distin- 
guished by the names of Present and Perfect Participles, are 
applied indifferently to Time Past, Present, or Future; as, I 
am loving, I rvas loving, I shall be loving ; / am loved, I was 
loved, 1 shall be loved. 

To supply the place of Participles of the Future, the Pre- 
sent of the Infinitive is generally used; as, I am to obey my 
instructions; These orders are to be straightway executed-^. 



OF PARTICLES. 



Under the general name of Particles, are comprehended 
Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Interjections. They 
are all Indeclinable. Some Adverbs, however, admit of de- 
grees of comparison ; as, well, better, best ; wisely, more wisely, 
most wisely. 

For the definitions and classification of Adverbs, Preposi- 
tions, Conjunctions, and Interjections, see the beginning of 
Etymology ; any other observations that occur respecting 
them will be found under the following heads of Derivation, 
and Syntax. 



* 'O $£ Kufi©' isr^ta-iliBii, th? o-v£ofx£vu<; x«6' v,u.ioa.v tjj exxXsos'tf. Acts ii. 47- The 
English Version reads, improperly, " Such as 'should be saved." — Mr. Walker, 
I think, very improperly and unsuccessfully labours to do away with this pecu- 
liar form of the Participle when it follows the verb to be. See Outlines of Eng- 
lish Grammar, page 62. 

t A list of such Perfect Participles as do not end in d, or ed, is contained in 
the Table of Irregular Verbs. 



H 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 



OF DERIVATION. 

AH Languages consist of Primitive arid Derivative Words, of which the 
latter generally form the more numerous class. In English the Primitive 
and Derivative are often alike, a* to love, a verb, and love, a. noun; long, an 
adjective, to long, a verb, and long, an adverb ; but, in most cases, the de- 
rivative is made either by compounding or contracting words, or by leng- 
thening or shortening syllables, the rules for which are various. 

I. ARTICLES. 

t. Articles are sometimes used* adverbially, as ufoot, a horseback, rt going, 
the more, the less, the most highly. 
- . 2. Articles sometimes convert Common into Proper, or Proper into 
Common Names or Nouns, as a Xantippe, the milkman. 

3. Articles change Adjectives into Substantives, when they stand in a 
sentence without a substantive, as the. hand of the diligent maketh rich. 

4. Articles, as well as Possessive Pronouns, and Nouns in the Possessive 
Case, change Participles into Substantives, as the exercising of the memory, 
his reading of Virgil, the King"s summoning of his Parliament . 

2. NOUNS. 

1. Nouns are derived from Nouns by means either of Prefixes or Post- 
fixes, with or without changing a, part of the primitive, as male, female ; 
man, woman; poet, poetess ; marquis, marchioness. 

2. Nouns are derived from Nouns by composition, by which the words 
are either joined, or kept separate, or connected by a hyphen, as Yorkshire, 
eoal mine, wine-merchant ; although the two suhstantives thus joined form 
but one noun, yet the former is accounted an adjective. An Adjective may, 
in like manner, be compounded with a noun, as a sensible old man, a gen- 
teel young man. 

3. Nouns ending in hood or head, signify character or quality, as knight- 
hood, priesthood, falsehood. 

4. Nouns in ship or ian, denote office or profession, as lordship, musician. 

5. Nouns ending in ery, ard, age, and ment, denote action or habit, as 
drunkard, usage, prudery, commandment. 

6. Nouns ending in wicfa rick, and dvm, denote dominion, jurisdiction, or 
condition, as bailiwick, bishoprick, kingdom, freedom. 

7. Diminutives sometimes terminate in king, ling, ing, ock, or el, as lamb- 
kin, gosling, hillock, cockerel. 

8. Nouns are frequently derived from Adjectives or Verbs, as length, 
whiteness, hatred, fear. 

9. Nouns are derived from Participles in ing by the prefixing of an Article 
or a word denoting Possession. See Derivation of Articles, rule 4. 

3. PRONOUNS. 

1. Pronouns are derived from Pronouns by composition, as myself, who* 
ever, whosoever, our own, &c. 

2. Possessive Pronouns simple are derived from the Personal of either 
number, and thence acquire the signification of Number, as well as of Per- 
son ; thus from I, thou, he, she, are derived my, thy, his, her; and from we, 
ye, they, are derived our, your, their. My silver means the silver belonging 
to me; our silver, the silver belonging to us. 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

3. Pronouns Possessive are derived from Pronouns Possessive in two ways 
— 1st, by changing the termination, as mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, 
instead of i»v,%TAer, our, your, their ;— ox, 2dly, by assuming the word 
own, as my oum, thy own, his own, her own, their own. The former derivation 
marks a weaker sense of Possession, or Property, the latter a stronger. 
The Derivatives mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, are by some called Ab- 
soiuie Possessive Pronouns; and my own, thy own, his own, her own, their 
jown, belong to the same class, when they are use/ by themselves without 
a substantive. 

4. ADJECTIVES. 

1. Adjectives are derived from Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs, by the ad- 
dition of Prefixes, or of Postfixes, or by altering the termination, as unwise, 
gracious, fatal, irksome. 

2. Adjectives are derived from Adjectives by Comparison, as great, 
greater, greatest ; little, less, least. 

3. Adjectives ending in ful, some, or y, denote plenty, as fruitful, trouble- 
some, wealthy. 

4. Adjectives ending in less, imply want, as pennyless, worthless. 

5. Adjectives ending in ish and ly denote comparison or likeness, as child' 
ish, manly. Ish, which is sometimes contracted into s, frequently lessens the 
signification of the primitive, as saltish, sweetish. The termination s is.added 
to a few pronouns and adverbs, as yours, forwards. 

6. Adjectives ending in en denote the substance of which any thing is 
made, as golden, wooden, leathern. 

1. Adjectives ending in ing, ed, t, te, able, or ible, are derived from verbs, 
and signify condition or susceptibility, as binding, reduced, fit, temperate, 
habitable, terrible. 

8. The Particle in or un prefixed to Adjectives denote privation, as insen- 
sible, ungrateful. 

9. An Adjective -vhen preceded by an article without a substantive, be- 
comes a substantive, and an adverb when preceded by a preposition, as the 
learned, in general. 

Q. VERBS. 

1. Verbs are derived from Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, and sometimes Ad- 
verbs, with or without changing the form of the primitive, as to fish, to clear, 
to oppress, to forward.* 

2. Verbs are derived from Verbs chiefly by means of Prefixes, or of Par. 
tides subjoined, as overcome, to cast up. 

3. The Infinitive Mood is sometimes used as a Substantive, as to err is 
human, to forgive divine. 

6. PARTICIPLES. 

i. Participles and Participials are partly verbs and partly adjectives; they 
derive their origin from the former, and partake of the nature of the latter 
in being joined to their proper substantives. Participles end in ing, ed, d, 
te, t, or n, as loving, loved, fixt, spoken. Participials end in able, ible, and 
sometimes endary, as laudable, forcible, legendary. 



* It may be proper to explain what is meant by Verbs being derived from Verbs without 
changing the form of the Primitive. It is, Uiat the same Verb may sometimes si^uity actively, 
and sometimei have a neuter signification. 

H2 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. The Participle, with an Article, Possessive Pronoun, or Noun in the 
Possessive Case, before it, becomes a substantive, as the sacking of Troy, our 
losing of time, the misers hoarding cfpelf. 

3. The Participle is sometimes converted into a Preposition, as according 
to advice, excepting this fault, notwithstanding appearances. 

7- ADVERBS. 

1. Adverbs are derived from Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions, and Con- 
junctions, with or without changing the form of the primitive, as long, never, 
afterwards, therefore. 

2. Most Adverbs derived from Adjectives terminate in ly, as courteously , 
civilly. 

3. An Adjective without a Substantive, preceded by a Preposition, forms, 
with the Preposition, one Adverb, as, in general, in particular. 

A. Adverbs are derived from Adverbs ; 1st, by comparison, as soon, sooner, 
soonest; quickly, more quickly, most quickly. 2dly, by composition, as else- 
where, nevertheless. 

5. A Preposition, or Conjunction, not used as a connective, but as a cir- 
cumstance, or particle of distinction, becomes an Adverb, as he went out, do 
likewise. 

6. Adverbs are sometimes derived from Nouns, as afoot, abreast. 

7. The termination * gives to Adverbs and Prepositions a weaker signifi- 
cation, as he fell backwards, that is, partly on his back ; towards the south, 
that is, principally south, but somewhat inclining to the east or west. 

8. INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS AND OTHER PARTICLES. 

1. Particles peculiar to Derivative Nouns, are such as hood, head; ship, 
ian; cry, ard, age, and meat; wick, rick, dom ; king, ling, ing, ock, el. 

2. The Particles peculiar to Derivative Adjectives, are such as er, est ; 
ful, some,y ; less; ish, ly ; en; ing,ed,t,te; able, ible. 

3. The Particles used chiefly in the derivation of Verbs, and frequently 
also in the derivation of other words, are — 1st, Prepositive Particles, impro- 
perly denominated Inseparable Prepositions ; 2dly, Separable Prepositions 
from the English, Latin, or Greek languages, which are used as Prefixes; 
and Sdly English Prepositions used adverbially, which follow the verb, and 
make, as it were a part of it. It is sometimes a matter of nicety to disun- 
guish whether a Preposition is used as a Preposition, an Adverb, or a Par- 
ticle imparting a peculiar signification to the Verb, and forming a part 
of it. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



53 



LIST OF PARTICLES USED IN COMPOSITION. 



English. 


Latin. 


Greek. 


Example*. 


A redundant 






Arise, awake 


Over, out, \ 
Above, on J 




Hyper 


Oversee, outrun, superstitious, 


Super 


hypercritical 


A sain 


Re 




tt«*vi it 


After 


Post 


Meta 


- >t»tpone, metaphysics 


Against 


Contra 


Anti 


Contradict, antidote 


Aside 


Se 




deduce 


Asunder 


Di, dis 




Divest, distend 


Away from 


A, ab, abs 




Abstract, abject, averse 


At, to 


Ad 




Attain, addition 


Backwards 


Retro 




Retrograde 


Before, Fore 


Ante, prse 




Foresee, anticipate, precede 


Beneath 


Subter 




Subterraneous 


Beside 


Prater 




Preternatural 


Between 


Inter 




Interval, interstice 


(Both,^.) 




Amphi 


Amphibious 


(Changing,Par*) 


Trans 


Meta 


Transform, metamorphose 


Down 


De 




Dejected, descent 


For, Be 


Pro 




Bespeak, provide 


Forth 


Pro 




Project 


In, into 


In 


En 


Induce, energy 


Mis 






Mishap 


(Not Adv.) Un 


In 


A 


Impious, unjust, anarchy 


On, A 






Afoot, ashore 


For 


Ob, pro 




Forbid, objection, prohibit 


Over 


Trans 




Transmit, transition 


Out, without 


Ex, extra 




Extend, extraordinary 


Round about, Be 


Am, circum 


Amphi, 


Ambition, circumference, peri- 






Peri 


phery ,amphitheatre,bedaub 


Through 


Per 




Perform 


Together, Co 


Con, cum 


Syn 


Composition, synthesis 


To within 


Intro 




Introduce 


Under 


Sub 


Hypo 


Subject, hypocrisy 


Up 






Uphold 


Without 


Sine 


A 


Sinecure, anonymous 



Note.— Those words which are printed in Italics are commonly called Insrparable Preposi- 
tions, because tbey are never found to constitute words by themselves. 



5t ETYMOLOGY. 



Remarks on the Ten Parts of Speech, 

I. Nouns and Pronouns are words of the same order, as Nouns repre- 
sent things or ideas, and Pronouns are used as substitutes for Nouns. 

The name of Attributives is applied equally to Adjectives, Verb?, and 
Participles, as each of those species of words denotes a quality; Adjectives 
indeed simply, Verbs and Participles corapoundedly, or with the addition 
of something else. 

The name of Secondary Attributives is given to Adverbs, as they denote 
the attributes of attributes. When Adverbs are joined to Nouns, as some- 
times happens, the noun assumes the nature of an attributive. 

Prepositions and Conjunctions are named, in general, Connectives. The 
former connect words, the latter sentences.* 

II. Nouns are divided into two classes, Proper and Common. Common 
Nouns are subdivided, as follows, into 

1. Natural, as elephant, tree, meadozo. 

2. Artificial, as castle, library, bell 

3. Abstract, as virtue, prudence, gravity. 

4. Collective, as nation, senate, committee, multitude. 
■ 5. Verbal and Participial, as teacher, writing. 

6. Derivative and Diminutive, as j riends hip, self-love, hillock. 

III. Pronouns are variously divided, as into Proper and Improper; Sim- 
ple and Compound ; Prepositive and Subjunctive; Substantive, A jective, 
and Relative; Personal, Possessive, Relative, Demonstrative, Distributive, 
and Indefinite. So that the same Pronouns may be classed in various 
ways. And as different Grammarians prefer some one arrangement, and 
some another, the learner is apt to be confounded by different sy si ems. 
The last of these divisions, which is the most comprehensive, and which 
has been adopted in this Grammar, admits also of some subdivisions. Thus 
the Personal Pronouns myself thyself himself herself are named reciprocals ; 
the Possessive Pronouns mire, thine, his occasionally, hers, ours, yours, 
theirs, are stiled Absolute; and the Relatives who, which, what, zohether, 
when they ask a question, are stiled Interrogatives. 

The Pronouns Proper are the Personal, Possessive, and Relative; and 
the Pronouns Improper are the Demonstrative, Distributive, and Indefinite, 
which some Grammarians are willing to throw out of the list of Pronouns 
altogether. 

A<- to the Pronouns Simple and Compounded, those which are followed 
by the words self or own, or the particle ever, are Compounds. The rest are 
S -nple. Pronouns Prepositive, and Subjunctive or Relative, are Pronouns 
proper to begin a sentence, and Pronouns proper to continue a sentence, 
that is to subjoin a clau.-e or sentence to something previous. Or the for- 
mer sort are I, thou, he, she, this, that, &c. and of the latter sort who, which, 
that. 

When the classes of Pronouns are reckoned three, the Substantive Pro- 
nouns are the same with the Personal, the Relative remain as they were, 
and Adjective Pronouns comprehend all those that are usually numbered 
under the heads of Possessive Demonstrative, Distributive, and In- 
definite. 

Pronouns might also be divided into Primitive and Derivative. 

IV. Adjectives have been reduced to the following classes. 



• The exceptions to this rule are too few, to be able to set aside the rule itself. 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

1. Proper, as Egyptian, Babylonian, Italian, English. 

2. Common, as broad, narrow, slow, swift, good, bad. 

3. Verbal, as reverend, admirable, commendable. 

4. Participial, a$ marked, strayed, following, hearing. 

5. Compound, as heart-rending, pains-taking, cloud-capt. 
XT , C Cardinal, as one, two, three. 

C. Numerals \ rd\n<i), as first, second, third. 



V. Etymology divides Verbs into Active, Passive, and Neuter; Acci- 
dence into Regular, Irregular, and Defective. A mixed division is into 

1. The Substantive Verb to be. 

2. Neuter Verbs, as to sit, to stand. 

3. Active Intransitive, as to run, to flee, 

4. Active or Transitive, as to love, to chasten. 

5. Compound Active, as tolanghat. 

6. Passive Verbs, as to be loved, to Be beat. 

Verbs are, by some Grammarians, distinguished into Substantive and Ad- 
jective, the former class containing only the single solitary Verb to be, and 
the latter all other Verbs. 

Participles may be classed in the same "maimer as Verbs. 

VI. The Moods of Verbs vary in number arid in kind in different languages. 
Moods have been said to represent the affections of the soul, which, if 
literally applied, would effect as many moods as there are affections of the 
mind. This accounts for the names of several moods that are to be found 
in different languages, as the Optative, the Precative, the Imperative, and 
such like. In some languages we may meet with Affirmative, Negative, 
Interrogative, and Conditional Moods. In others, Indicative, Causal, and 
Reflective moods. In others, most of the moods are expressed by means 
of two Verbs, one governed by the other, or by an adverb* or conjunction 
preceding the Indicative mood, or by the position of the Nominative. 

It has long been a question how many Moods ought to flow from a Verb, 
or do naturally belong to a perfect or philosophical language, did any such 
exist. The very learned and ingenious Mr. Harris (see Hermes page 144), 
says that naturally and properly there are four moods to Verbs. 

1. The Indicative or Declarative, to assert what we think certain. 

2. The Potentical, for the purposes of what we think contingent. 

3. The Interrogative, to procure information. 

4. The Requisitive, which is either Precative to superiors, or Imperative' to in- 
feriors, to assist us in the gratification of our volitions. 

The Suljunctive' Mood Mr. Harris reckons the same as the Potential. 
The Infinitive ought not to be accounted a Mood — The excellent Dr. 
Beattie thinks that only two Moods are necessary to verbs, namely, ttie 
Indicative and Subjunctive. 

TheTenses of Verbs, like as Moods, vary in number in different Languages, 
Mr. Harris says says that a perfect Conjugation would contain "twelve 
Tenses, three indefinite, and nine definite, as follows 
Aorist r Present, as I write, Scribo, y%a.$u 

or < Past, as I wrote, scripsi, "eypa^a. 

Indefinite v Future, as J shall write, scribam, ypk-\,*> 

r Present as / am going to write, scripturus mm, {as\}m ycafeiv 
Inceptive < Past as J was writing, scripturus cram, ty.i\\ov ypa,<pnv 

I Future as I shall be beginning to write, scripturus ero, (AiKkhs-x ypatyuv 
Middle t Present, as I am writing, scribo, Tuy^aw ypa<piov 

or ■/ Past, as / was toriting, scribebam, "cypa-pov or STvy%avov ypi^t 

' Extended t Future, as / shall be writing, scribens ero, 'sa-ofxai ypx^uv 

r Present, as I have written, scripsi, ysy^a<pa 
Completive < Past, as J had done writing, scripseram, lysypa.<p£iv 

C Future, as I shall have done writing, scripsero, £e-e ( w«t y*ypa.<$Mi 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

Dr. Beattie has given a scheme of the Tenses of a perfect Conjugation, 
somewhat different from the above. He makes eleven tenses in all. 

Definite in Time. 

1. Present, / write, scribo. 

2. Preterperfect J have written, 

3. Paulo-post-future, / am about to write, scripturus sum. 

Indefinite in Time, or Aorist. 

4. Present / write daily or often 

5. Past 1 wrote or did write* iy$ m.\a. 

6. Future / shall write, scribam 

Complete in respect of Action. 

1. Preterperfect 1 have written 

5. Aorist of the Past I wrote 

7. Plusquamperfect 1 had written 

8. Future perfect J shall have written 

Iucomplete in respect of Action. 

9. Imperfect and continued past, / was writing 

6. Aorist of the future / shall write 

3. Paulo-post-future I am about to write 

Compound, as uniting two or more Times in one Tense, 

2. Past with present 

7. Past with past 

8. Present and past with future 

3. Present with future 

10. Past with future, 1 was about to write 

11. Imperfect with future, I ska 11 be writing 

Simple, expressive of one Time. 

I. Definite preseut 

4. Aorist of the present 

5. Aorist of the past 

6. Aorist of the future 

y. Imperfect and extended past. 

A perfect theory of Moods and Tenses is still a desideratum in Gram- 
mar. The schemes above laid down are probably near the truth, although 
they may differ from it in some respects. The hints they afford may how- 
ever be extremely useful towards the formation of a perfect theory. 

The Persons of Verbs are naturally three, first, second, and third, or the 
person speaking, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. 
Although probably all languages have inflections of the verb correspond- 
ing to the person of the nominative, yet such inflections are not to be deem- 
ed absolutely necessary, as they may be, and often are done without, and 
that too without inconvenience. 

Verbs have Numbers to correspond with the singular or plural nomina- 
tive with which they agree. In this case, as in that of Person, inflection is 
not necessary, although custom has sanctioned its use, more or less, in all 
Languages. 

VII. As the nature of Infinitives, Gerunds, and Supines, has been matter 
of controversy and is not yet clearly determined, it is hoped that the 
following observations may throw some light on this curious subject, and 
explain what still calls for explanation. Both Adjectives and Nouns are, 
and may be, derived from Verbs. Verbal Adjectives denoting time have 
been named Participles. But Verbal Nouns denoting time have not been 
accounted, as by analogy and strict propriety they ought, a distinct part of 
speech. Some of these verbal nouns denoting time, have obtained special- 
ly the name of Gerunds, and others the name of Supines. 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

Now as Participles are naturally of three- denominations, present, past, 
and future, so Verbal Nouns denoting time, are properly of three names or 
sorts, past, present, and future. It is to be expected that these verbal nouns 
denoting time should be derived from Participles, or from the Infinitive 
Mood, and accordinglv they are found to be so. In Latin the Gerund in 
dum, which is a verbal noun denoting future time, is derived from the 
future participle in dus. The two Latin Supines in um and u are the Accu- 
sative and Ablative cases of a verbal noun of the fourth declension, defective, 
and derived from the perfect participle, which yet does not always denote 
past tune, in tus, sus, or xus. And as the Gerunds and Supines have been 
derived from the future and perfect participles passive, so, there being no 
present participle passive in Latin, the Infinitive mood active is used 
as a verbal noun denoting present time. In Greek too, the place of 
Gerunds and other verbal nouns denoting time is supplied either by Infini- 
tives, or Participles in the neuter gender, with the article prefixed. Th» 
French language follows something of the same rule. The Infinitive, and 
Participles in nt and I, when indeclinable, are used as Nouns denoting 
time, from which circumstance they have sometimes been improperly ana 
confusedly denominated Gerunds by French Grammarians. The Eng- 
lish Language, in like manner, acknowledges the use of the Infinitive 
Mood, and of Participles in ing substantively, as Gerunds, or as Verbal 
Nouns denoting time. And similar remarks are probably applicable to 
all other languages. Verbal Nouns denoting future time are properly 
named Gerunds : but those which denote either present or past time ought 
not to be called Gerunds, but rather Gesta, things doing, or done, actions and 
effects, or by names of similar import. The name supine implies that the 
verb is laid on its back, as it has lost its soul or life, affirmation. 

Hence we see the reason why the Infinitive is so often considered as a Noun 
but construed as a verb. And hence we may conclude that the Infinitive 
is neither a noun nor a verb, although it partakes of the nature of both, 
but that it belongs to an eleventh part of speech, not as yet recognized by 
Grammarians; called, by Wallis, a Participle Noun. 

VIII. Adverbs have been already reduced under the general heads of 
Place, Time, Quantity, Quality, Order, Affirmation, Negation, Doubt; to 
which classes some Grammarians add the following heads : 

Interrogation, as where, when, how, why. 

Indication, as lo! 

Explaining, as namely. 

Conjunction, as universally, generally, together. 

Separation, as apart, asunder, separately. 

Preference, as chiefly, especially, rather. 

Excess, as exceedingly, better, worse, more, too, very. 

Detect, as almost, nearly. 

Gradation or Abatement, as scarcely, hardly, piecemeal. 

Likeness or Equality, as so, thus, equally. 

Unhkeness or Inequality, as else, otherzoise. 

Dr. Beattie has made an attempt to reduce all Adverbs under the ten 
heads of Aristotle's Categories, and the attempt seems to be in a good mea- 
sure successful, although we may believe that the classification of Adverbs 
was not Aristotle's design in framing these Categories. His plan seems 
to have been to make Grammar the foundation of Logic, and to ground his 
Dialectics on the ten species of words, or parts of speech of which language 
consists, or more probably on four of the leading parts of speech, and six 
of the accidents. His metaphysics too are similarly founded, in which his 
term of tubst ant ial forms does not appear to be more strange or improper 
than our own common term of abstract substantives. To make Grammar 

I 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

subservient to logic and metaphysics, is to extend its utility and to pro- 
mote its honour amongst the liberal arts. It was a design not unworthy 
of the mind of Aristotle, and a task probably not exceeding his powers to 
perform. Adverbs, whose use is so common, and derivation so various, 
might therefore be expected to be easily resolvable into classes answering 
to most of the Categories. 

IX. Prepositions are divided into two classes, Separable and Inseparable, 
of both which there have been lists already given. These too classes are 
not of the same nature, for it is only the separable Prepositions, so called 
from their preceding and governing of nouns, that connect words and form 
a distinct part of speech. The name of Inseparable Prepositions is not 
very proper, as many words of this class are used separately and apart from 
the word whose meaning they affect, and several of them are postfixes, and 
not prefixes. Yet it is hardly worth while to seek to change the name. 
The use of Inseparable Prepositions is, not to connect words and govern 
nouns, but to form compounds, and change the meaning of words. 

Certain Prepositions in English, set before Nouns, form compound cases 
answering to the simple cases of Nouns in other languages, especially in 
Latin and Greek. Some English Grammarians adopt, and others reject, 
the notion of compound cases. It would, indeed, be difficult to account for 
several analogies between Latin and English Syntax, without assuming, in 
the latter, compound cases as a thing granted; and still more diflLcult to 
account for certain forms of construction in English, without referring 
analogically to the Latin construction. 

X. Conjunctions have been reduced to three classes, Conjunctive, Dis- 
junctive, and Adverbial, as shewn in page 22. Another classification is as 
follows : 

Copulative, as and, also. 

Disjunctive, as either, or. 

Exclusive, as neither, nor. 

Conditional, as if. 

Concessive, as though, although, yet, albeit. 

Exceptive, as wilcss. 

Adversative, as but, however. 

Causal, as because, for, since, that. 

XI. The Article is a part of Speech necessary to render a general name 
applicable to a particular object, and it therefore assists in supplying the 
place of terms that are not in language. Pronouns Possessive, Demonstra- 
tive, Distributive, and Indefinite, and nouns in the possessive case, also 
serve to render general terms definite; and when they do so, the article 
becomes useless and is omitted. Thus, when one says my Father's house, 
the pronoun my defines what Father is meant, and the noun Father's in the 
possessive case defines what house is meant. It is therefore improper to 
restrain the term Definitive to the Article, to improper pronouns, to cardi- 
nal numbers, or to any particular species of words. Several languages 
have no Article, but these languages are either imperfect on this account, 
or else make use of certain contrivances to supply the defect. 

XII. Some Grammarians maintain that the Interjection is no part of 
speech at all, but a mode of utterance common to all nations, and univer- 
sally understood. But it ought to be observed that the Interjections of all 
languages differ from each other, excepting only three or four, which are 
perhaps common to all, and which most probably are derived from one and 
the same original language. The Interjection may elegantly express the 
force of a whole sentence, but its use ought not to be frequent.— See Note, 
page 96. 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

XIII. Plato, amongst the ancients, affirmed that there were only two 
parts of speech necessary and natural in language, viz. Nouns and Verbs — 
but this certainly meant for a language abounding with inflexions. 
Aristotle admitted four parts of speech as necessary, viz. Article, Noun, 
Attribute, and Connective— and this doctrine is not materially different 
from that which is now in established use, if we are to understand that 
Pronoun is comprehended under Noun, that Verbs, Participles, Adjectives, 
and Adverbs, are contained under the name of Attribute, and that 
Prepositions and Conjunctions may be equally styled Connectives. 

The most ancient Welch Grammarians divided the parts of speech 
into two sorts, primary and secondary ; the latter being derived from the 
former. The primary parts of speech were Nouns and Verbs, the secon- 
dary comprehending all the rest. Noun they considered as the parent of 
Pronoun, Adjective, and Article; Verb as the parent of Preposition, 
Adverb, and Conjunction. Their system does not, however, appear to 
have been exclusive, or to have prevented secondary and derivative words 
from ranking with primary ones as parts of speech. 

A celebrated modern English Philologist, Mr. Home Tooke, in a treatise 
on Grammar, quaintly named Diversions of Purley, goes as far as Plato, 
and boldly asserts that in English, as well as other languages, 
there are only two sorts of words, nouns and verbs. His system ex- 
cludes the Interjection from being a portion of language, and it be- 
comes a necessary sacrifice. Article he accounts a necessary and 
distinct part of speech, but he seems to forget that two and one make 
three, or that if Article be a part of speech as well as Noun and Verb, 
there must be three parts of speech in language. He derives most of the 
English Conjunctions and Prepositions from Gothic and Anglo-Saxon 
verbs and nouns, but a few Prepositions he acknowledges himself unable 
to account for in this way. But he forgets to mention that the Gothic and 
Anglo-Saxon languages had Conjunctions and Prepositions, and that seve- 
ral of these Conjunctions and Prepositions were primitive words from which 
verbs were or might be derived. Some English Particles he resolves at 
once into two Anglo-Saxon words, such as the corresponding Anglo-Saxon 
Particles of like sound, (which on these occasions he omits to mention.) 
could not be resolved into. When two Particles English and Anglo-Saxon 
of the same meaning evidently differ in their origin, he takes no notice of 
the difficulty as to the English language not having adopted the Anglo- 
Saxon Particle already in use, but having had recourse to two remote roots 
to form a compound that was not in use. He is sometimes inconsistent. 
In one place he says, " In the strict sense of the term, no doubt both the 

* necessary words (nouns and verbs), and the abbreviations (adverbs, pre- 
*• positions, and conjunctions), are all of them parts of speech; because 
" they are all useful in language, and each has a different manner of signi- 
** fication." In another place, much to the same purpose, he says, 
ic the distinction of prepositions and conjunctions may be useful enough 
H on account of the cases which they govern when applied to words, and 

* which they cannot govern when applied to sentences." Surely if 
Mr. Tooke allows that all Particles are strictly part? of speech, and that the 
distinction is useful, he has no right to quarrel with the established divi- 
sions of Etymology. No man has ever denied that nouns and verbs con- 
stitute the primary parts of speech, but it has not yet been proved that they 
are the only parts of speech. He affirms that the preposition/row signifies 
originally beginning at, but does not condescend to mention the language 
where this holds true. There is a Hebrew root of like sound which signifies 
to rend, and this probably is the origin of the word. The English preposi- 
tion at he derives, without mentioning the corresponding Anglo-Saxon pre- 
position aj t, from the Latin supine actum, (see Diversions of Pur ley, page 
S61), yet in another place (page 456), he professes himself unable to give 
the derivation of this word, or of the prepositions in, on, out off. He seems 
to lay great stress on the old scholastic maxim, nihil in intellect*, quod non 

12 



00 ETYMOLOGY. 

prius in sensu, a maxim which although true in many particulars, does not 
hold universally; otherwise, community of sense, or perception, would 
produce community of intellect, and the same instructions and counsels 
that are sufficient to regulate the judgement and conduct of one indivi- 
dual, wouldanswer equally well for all other individuals trained up in the 
same way. 

It is clear that in some languages the relations of words to one another 
may be, and often are, expressed by inflexions; whilst in other lan- 
guages the same relations are expressed by means of particles. Now if 
any Philologist or Grammarian is prepared to shew that all particles are 
necessarily nouns or verbs, he has not perfectly attained his object, until 
he has shewn likewise that inflexions are necessarily nouns or verbs If 
scribo odamo be a simple sentence, why should not I write with a pen 
be considered a simple sentence? In short, the advantage gained, in a 
grammatical view, by reducing all words to two classes or sorts, nouns 
and verbs, is attended with an oppositedisadvantage, in a rhetorical view, 
of equal or greater magnitude and importance, that of making many 
sentences or propositions out of one, where only one was intended to be' 
made. 

On the whole, it must be acknowledged that Mr. Home Tooke's 
Theory of Language is ingenious, instructive, and captivating; but that 
it is equally accommodated to all languages, he has left it to. the world 
to find out: that it is perfectly accommodated to any one language, as 
the English, he has not shewn : and that it is more useful as a whole, 
whatever it may be in part, than the system commonly followed, in the 
teaching of Languages, or more free from objections, none will venture 
to affirm* 



The following Table, which is entirely new, is constructed with a view 
to give the English student an idea of what he has to expect in opening 
the Grammars of other languages, and to shew their general analogy 
to each other. The difficulties of constructing such a table would be 
insuperab'e, if we were obliged to follow all the inconsistent schemes of 
Grammar in different languages, which different Grammarians have 
thought it proper to adopt; and the utility of the table would be abridged, 
or done away with altogether, unless a common standard were introduced 
for measuring the proportions and analogies in Etymology which differ- 
ent languages bear to each other. The Arabians, for instance, acknow- 
ledge but three parts of speech, Nouns, Verbs, and Particles; and of 
Verbs they make no less than thirteen conjugations. Notwithstanding 
this, their verbs are all conjugated the same way, and their language 
has absolutely as many kinds of words as the English. Their term 
conjugation is not akin to ours, but to what we call moods. For these 
reasons it has been thought right to account the number of their parts 
of speech ten, their conjugations" one, and their moods thirteen. And so 
of others. 

As the Table is entirely new there may be some mistakes in 
it, which could not easily be avoided, owing to the diversity of the 
Languages it contains, and the imperfect information that could be 
obtained concerning some that are but little known in this country. 
Grammarians in general seem to have been but little anxious about giving 
complete lists of Particles, or about fixing on any plan of grammatical 
arrangement that would suit the greatest number possible of different 
languages. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



01 



Attempt to 


compare the Etymologies of different 




Languages. 


Languages. 


E 

►J 

22 
22 


to 

~z 

o 
5 


t) 

8 

01 

a. 

X, 

o 
1/1 

I 

10 
10 


B 

-O 

a 

c 

Tj 
<u 

•3 

J= 

o 

«; 

TL 
w 

o 

5 

5 


* 

< 

1 
1 


a 

V 

O 

2 
2 


.a 

£ 

s 

2 
2 


O 






c 
o 

a 
P 
1 
1 


a) 

C 
3 
O 

a 
o 

"a. 
E 
«3 I 

26 
19 


a 
o 

E 
o 

J £ 

o r 

£ 6) 
U 3 

So '? 
S o 

3 o 
2 
2 


J 
3 
> 

a. 
E 

2 
2 


<» 
■n 
o 
o 

V 

a, 
S 
{« 


*. 

e 
S 

;_ 

W 

"a. 
S 

DO 

2 
2 


C 
C 

0. 


"3. 

1 


n 

a 

'3 
'5 

a. 

a 

a. 

1- 

27 


■ 

a 
o 

3 
O 

o 

EL 
E 

V3 

31 
28 




Chaldee and Syriac • • 


5 


4 
4 


3 


6 




28 
32 


3 

3 


10 
9 


5 
3 


1 




2 
2 


3 

2 


3 
2 


4 
2 


11 

15 


3 1 
S 1 


2 

1 


13 
4 


2 
2 


3 
3 




14 
15 


17 
15 




24 
3 






50 
60 


14 


9 
9 


5 






g 


3 


8 
3 


8 

4 


*9 
13 


3 10 
2 


2 

1 


6 

3 


6 
3 






19 
7 


31 

19 


Hindostanee - 


14 


5 


2 


2 


3 


14 

3 




32 


3 


9 


5 





2 


2 


6 


3 


10 


3 l 


2 


6 


3 


3 


8 


48 


26 




Greek, ancient 


24 


7 


10 


6 


1 


3 


3 


5 


3 


23 


3 2 


3 


5 


9 


3 


19 


18 


22 


Greek, modern 


24 


7 


10 


6 


1 


3 


2 




3 


23 


3 1 


2 


4 




3 




8 






25 


6 


9 
10 
10 


5 

6 
6 




1 
1 


3 


2 
2 
2 


6 




. 


18 
23 
21 


3 4 
3 3 
3 3 


2 




5 
5 
5 


3 




47 
28 
18 


28 




22 
28 


6 
5 


2 
2 


1 

1 


4 


4 




1 

1 


4 
4 


3 
3 


1 

2 


21 
16 




Portuguese 


24 


6 


10 


6 


2 


2 


2 





1 


23 


3 3 


1 


4 


4 


3 


2 


22 


10 




25 
25 
25 


6 


10 
10 


6 
6 
6 


3 
1 
1 


2 


2 


3 
6 

6 




33 
31 


3 1 
3 1 






3 

2 










Gothic -••• 


5 

6 


3 


2 

1 












Anglo-Saxon 


10 


3 


2 


6 


5 

4 


3 

S 


2 
2 


25 
45 


40 
28 


English 


26 


7 


10 


3 


2 


3 


2 


3 


1 


30 


3 1 


1 


4 


2 


3 


2 


40 


34 




26 


6 


10 


6 


2 


3 


2 


4 


2 


33 


3 1 


1 


5 


2 


3 


2 


33 


52 






26 


6 


10 


6 


2 


3 


2 


S 


1 


30 


3 1 


1 


4 


2 


3 


2 


31 


35 






25 


6 


10 


6 


2 


3 


2 


3 


1 


31 


3 3 


2 


3 


2 


3 


2 


18 


26 






26 
22 


6 


10 


6 
6 


2 
1 


3 


2 
3 


3 
4 


1 

4 


29 
18 


3 3 
3 5 


2 
2 




2 

2 












5 


10 


3 


5 
4 


3 
3 


2 

2 


51 


28 




Sclavonic 






































Polish 


30 


6 


9 


5 





3 


2 


7 


3 


22 


3 1 


1 


4 


3 


3 


2 


34 








34 


11 


9 


5 





o 


o 


7 


4 




3 2 


1 


3 


7 


3 


5 


25 


26 




Galic or Celtic, Erse 
Irish 


18 
18 


5 
5 


10 
10 


6 
6 


1 

1 


2 
2 


2 
2 


4 

6 


2 
5 


23 

26 


2 2 

3 2 


2 


5 


2 


3 


2 


26 


16 




2 


v) 


3 


3 


2 


34.29 


Welsh 


43 


12 


10 


5 


1 


3 




1 


40 


4 1 


1 


3 


6 


3 


J 










.a 

134 


14 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

Heads of a Grammatical Examination for a Senior Pupil, 



Q. What was the first language? 

A. The Hebrew, which was taught to Adam in Paradise, as well as the 
Alphabet, and Alphabetical Writing, nearly 6000 years ago. 

Q. Could man by his own natural and unassisted powers have invented 
speech and the art of writing ? 

A. It is natural to suppose that- of human inventions the easiest were 
discovered first, and the most difficult last ; but language and writing are the 
most difficult as well as the oldest of the arts of man, and it therefore fol- 
lows that man must have been instructed in those arts from the beginning. 
Philosophy teaches that man could not have originally invented language 
of himself. The art of writing was first taught to the Greeks by Cadmus, 
a Phenician, about the year of the world 3080, who was cotempomry with 
David, king of Judea. The use of letters was first introduced into Scythia 
by Wulphilas, about A. D. 300; and into Germany, by the Latins, about 
A. D. 400. The Huns were still ignorant of their use in the time of 
Procopius, about A. D. 526 ; and the Swedes and Norwegians until con- 
siderably later. The Sanscrit Alphabet is probably less ancient than the 
Greek. The Americans, when first visited by Columbus in 1492, knew 
nothing of the art of writing. 

Q. Is not the art of printing of modern invention ? 

A. The invention of the art of printing, which is incomparably easier 
than the invention of the art of writing, was unknown in Europe until the 
year 1429, when the art was first discovered by Laurentius of Harlem. It 
was perfected by John Faust, of Mentz, about the year 1459, and it was 
introduced into England by Corsellis, at Oxford, in 1468. William Caxton 
set up a printing press in Westminster Abbey, about the year 1471, and 
he continued printing until the year 1494, when he died in the 84th year 
of his age. 

Q. Which are the most ancient books in the world? 

A. The Book of Job, written about the year of the world 1849 ; and the 
Pentateuch or Law of Moses, which was finished about the year of the 
world 2578. 

Q. Which are the most ancient of the writings of the Greeks? 

A. We know of nothing extant in Greek more ancient than the poems 
of Hesiod and Homer, who are said to have flourished 34 years after the 
siege of Troy, that is about the year of the world 3250. 

Q. Do not the Hindoo Priests, and Chinese Philosophers, claim high 
antiquity to their nations respectively, in history and the science of 
astronomy ? 

A. Yes ; but these pretences are merely imaginary and political. They . 
have no history of the creation, fall, and redemption of the world; of the 
consanguinity of the human race, of the peopling of the earth, and of 
the confusion of languages at Babel. We should never have known from 
their pretended ancient observations in astronomy and historical records, 
that the sun once delayed his going down a whole da} r , in the lime of 
Joshua; and that in the days of Ahaz, King of Judah, the shadow of the 
sun-dial went back ten degrees. All which is proof enough, to those who 
understand the nature and evidences of the Christian religion, that their 
real chronology is posterior to these events, and that their ancient history 
is a mere tabic 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

Q. Are all languages analogous in respect of the number of the parts of 
speech? 

A. It is commonly reported that all languages have nearly the same 
number of parts of speech, as was naturally to be expected. 

Q. Have all languages the same way of expressing the relations of words 
to one another? 

A. No; they differ very much from one another in that respect. 
Some languages have a much greater variety of inflections than others, 
and these last have more auxiliary words, and less variety in the 
arrangement of sentences, than the former. 

Q. Ought not the analogy of languages in general to be of some con- 
sideration in forming rules of Grammar for languages in particular? 

A. It is fit it should be so, when the advantages exceed the disadvan- 
tages. 

Q. Where is the English Language contained? 

A. It is contained in the writings of the most approved English authors, 
published between the years 1613 and 1755. At the first mentioned period 
was published the present authorized translation of the Bible, which is still 
considered as a standard of the English language; and at the latter period 
was published Dr. Johnson's English Dictionary, which is universally 
considered as the best modern standard of our language. 

Q. Have you any particular view in fixing on these two epochas? 

A. The former period affects many of the questions that have lately 
arisen concerning derivations, and the difference of words. The mean- 
ings of words are not to be traced out of remote ages, and barbarous and 
uncertain dialects, in order to settle their modern signification. It is right 
to fix the commencement of an approved grammatical aera, that questions 
purely philological, and others purely grammatical, may not be confounded, 
as they too often have been. 

Q. What are the principal classes of Grammatical disputants? 

A. They are chiefly two ; one opinion is that Grammar is rather a 
science than an art; the contrary opinion being that grammar is rather 
an art than a science. And it is remarkable that those who are favourable 
to the former opinion, and who treat of Grammar in the philosophical way, 
as a science, endeavour to ground their doctrine on the practice of the 
most unphilosophical and barbarous times ; that is, on a scanty knowledge 
of the language spoken by the Goths and Anglo-Saxons, in what is termed 
the middle or dark ages ; and that those who adopt the latter opinion, and 
who treat of Grammar as an art, ground their decisions on the practice and 
authority of the most learned and approved writers of a cultivated age. .- 

Q. On what parts of Grammar is there the greatest diversity of 
opinions? 

A. In Etymology the exact number of the parts of speech has been con- 
tested, as also the Accidence of Nouns and Verbs. In the other branches 
of Grammar, viz. Orthography, Syntax, and Prosody, scarcely any disputes 
have arisen. 

Q. On what does the number of the Parts of Speech depend? 

A. The number of the Parts of Speech depends on the signification 
of words, and on their various uses. By this rule all the indeclinable 
parts of speech are distinguished from each other. 

Q. How do you distinguish Articles from pronouns, or from any of the 
other parts of speech ? 

A. The Article never supplies the place of a Noun, and its uses in Syntax 
differ from those of all the other parts of speech. 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. How are Pronouns Demonstrative, Distributive, and Indefinite, dis- 
tinguished from Articles and Adjectives? 

A. Pronouns Demonstrative, Distributive, and Indefinite, are distin- 
guished from Articles by their being able to supply an ellipsis of the Noun, 
which the Article cannot do; and they differ from Adjectives by not sig- 
nifying a quality or attribute, and by never taking an article before them, 
whether the Noun to which they belong be elliptical or not. 

Q. Is not the word one an exception to this rule ; and are there not 
several other exceptions ? 

A. The word one is sometimes a pronoun, sometimes a pronominal 
adjective, and sometimes an adjective. The uses and significations of 
words determine their analogies in Grammar. 

Q. What is the distinction. between Adjectives, Participles, and Verbs ? 

A. They all agree in being Attributives. An Adjective expresses simply 
an attribute or quality; a Participle denotes an attribute with time, and a 
Verb denotes an attribute with time, and also affirms something. Verbs 
and Participles active govern the objective case, which Adjectives seldom 
do. Adjectives may be preceded by Articles, or by Possessive Pronouns, 
which Participles never are, unless when they become by derivation either 
adjectives or nouns. 

Q. Are the Infinitives of Verbs to be considered as Nouns ? 

A. They may, by a sort of metonymy, be considered as nouns; but they 
retain always more of the syntactical properties of verbs than of nouns; 
and they signify time, which nouns do not. The infinitive of a verb 
never takes an article before it; it never takes the termination of the pos- 
sessive case of nouns, and it never governs the possessive case, as nouns 
do. Neuter verbs, which do not govern any case, frequently govern the 
infinitive mood. Although the infinitive does not express affirmation, yet 
it is the root of the verb, which by evolution expresses affirmation, when 
it has a subject or nominative. 

Q. Why do you reckon Adverbs a distinct part of speech? 

A. Adverbs are evidently a species of attributives distinct from adjectives, 
verbs, and participles, and they have therefore been called Attributives of 
Attributives. The use of Adverbs is to prevent circumlocution. As nouns 
and pronouns are accounted distinct species of words, so adverbs, and those 
words which they by contraction, derivation, or use represent, are to bo 
accounted distinct species of words. 

Q. What other species of words are there besides Names and Attribu- 
tives ? 

A. Besides Articles, Names, and Attributives, we have Connectives; 
that is, Prepositions and Conjunctions, of which the former connect words 
with one another, and the latter sentences. 

Q. Have Prepositions any meaning by themselves? 

A. When Prepositions are considered as primitive words they have no 
meaning, but when taken as derivatives they may have some meaning. 
In a strict sense, Prepositions have no meaning, as they signify relation. 
The relations of things to one another are neither substances nor attri- 
butes. The r*tio of one magnitude to another is expressed by two terms, 
whereof neither ran denote ratio by itself. When Prepositions acquire any 
meaning, they become Adverbs, or Derivative Particles, commonly but 
imprope rly denominated Inseparable Prepositions. 

Q. You say that Conjunctions connect only sentences together, is it 
always so? 

A. y^s; there are a few apparent exceptions, but these may be easily 
explained, by supplying ellipses, or removing contractions, so as not to 
offend the general rule. 



ETYMOLOGY. 66 

Q. How is English Accideuce regulated ? 

A. The English Language has hut few inflexions — the accidence there- 
fore depends chiefly on the use of auxiliaries, on the signification of words, 
and on the general analogy ^of languages. 

Q. Why do you allow three cases to nouns ? 

A. Because this is the greatest number of cases found in the* declension 
of any word, and because this number is sufficient, and not more than su£ 
ficient, to establish an analogy between the English and some of the most 
cultivated languages, in the declension of nouns, and in syntax, 

Q. You admit that English verbs have a passive voice and compound 
tenses? 

A. It is scarcely possible to admit the one, without admitting the other. 
The signification and use of words, the consent of grammarians in matter* 
that have never been disputed, and the analogy of languages are all in fa- 
vour of compound tenses. 

Q. How does the signification of words affect the question of compound 
tenses? 

A. Verbs signify time; there are three times, present, past, and future. 
Future time is expressed in English by a compound form of the verb, but 
the two other times are expressed by simple forms of the verb. The 
signification of verbs requires a future tense or time, whether it be simpls 
ornot, or whether it have a peculiar name or not. 

Q. Do auxiliary verbs retain their original signification in the compound 
tenses of English verbs ? 

A. The principal use of auxiliary verbs is to supply the want of inflec- 
tions. Thus in I shall love, the word shall is merely a sign of future time, 
and signifies no more than the termination bo of umabo in Latin. A se- 
condary use of auxiliaries, which ought not to be confounded with the first, 
is to denote emphasis and precision, or the want of them. Auxiliary verbs 
ought therefore in the compound tenses of English verbs to be considered 
as declinable particles having no signification by themselves, but capable 
of affecting the meaning by composition. 

Q. How is it proved by the use of words that English verbs have com- 
pound tenses? 

4. All verbs in English are conjugated by means of the same auxiliaries, 
and these auxiliaries are but few in number. The proof is of the same 
kind as that a preposition belore a noun does not constitute a case, other- 
wise nouns would have as many cases as there are prepositions; for if in 
the compound tenses of all verbs the same auxiliaries always occur, and 
their number be but small, and if they answer the same purposes that in- 
flexions do, which would otherwise be necessary, we must conclude that 
the English language, although barren of inflexions, is not barren oi gram- 
matical forms ot express ion to answer all the purposes of speech, and that 
nothing is gained by giving new names, or no names at all, to the com- 
pound tenses. 

Q. What are those things wherein Grammarians generally agree, and 
which argue the propriety of admitting compound tenses in English ? 

A. Indeclinable words constitute various pans of speech according to 
their signification, and without any regard to their form. — Inflection has 
not a great deal to do wiih the modes of declension ascribed to pronouns, 
and it has nothing to do with the persons of nouns and pronouns. — English 
verbs have a plural by analogy, and not by any peculiar form.— -Many verbs 
irregular, or defective, are irregular only, or defective only, in the compound 
tenses, or in the passive voice. But a verb cannot be said to be irregular, 
merely because the perfect participle is irregular; nor to be defective merer 

F 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

ly because the perfect participle is wanting; since the participle is no part 
of the verb. If therefore verbs may be called irregular and defective, which 
are irregular or defective only in the compound tenses or in the passive 
voice, the compound tenses and passive voice are to be considered as con- 
stituent parts of a complete and regular conjugation. 

Q. You say that the analogy of languages is also favourable to compound 
tenses, how is this to be understood ? 

There is in many languages a sort of agreement as to the number of tenses 
in verbs, and when simple tenses fail the analogy is maintained by means 
of compound tenses. 

Q. Why do not English Grammarians adopt the middle voice, optative 
mood, paulo-post-future, and dual number of the Greeks ? 
* A. Because they cannot adofftand use both a Greek and a Latin stand- 
ard or model of Grammar at one and the same time; also, because the 
English, is more analogous to the Latin than to the Greek in respect of 
voices, moods, tenses, and numbers. The modern Greek language has 
probably much more affinity to ancient Greek than it has to Latin, but the 
other European languages are more akin to the Latin. 



Heads of a Grammatical Examination for a Junior Pupil, 

What is Grammar? 

Of how many parrs does Grammar consist ? 

What is Orthography ? 

What is a Letter, and how many Letters are there ? 

What is a Vowel, and how many Vowels are there? 

What is a Consonant, and how many Consonants are there? 

How are Consonants divided? 

What is a Mute, and how many Mutes ate there? 

What is a Semivowel, and how many Setnivuwels are there? 

What is a Liquid, and how many Liquids are there ? 

What is a Diphthong, and how many Diphthongs are there ? 

What is an Improper Diphthong, and how many Improper Diphthongs 

are there ? 
What is an Improper Triphthong, and how many Improper Triphthong 

are there ? 
What is a Syllable? 
What is a Monosyllable? 
What is a Dissyllable? 
What is a Trisyllable 
What is a Polysyllable? 
What is the Antepenult ? 
What is the Penult? 
What is the Termination ? 
What is a Primitive word ? 
What is a Derivative word ? 
What is a Simple word ? 
What is a Compound word '<■ 
What are Homotonous words ? 
What are Synoninious words ? 
What is the Homonymy of a word ' 
What is the Grammatical sense of a word ? 
What is the Rhetorical or Figurative sense of a word ? 
;iave you any rules for spelling, and what are tney ? 



• ETYMOLOGY. 67 

Have you any rules for dividing words into syllables, and what are they ? 
What are the rules for the use of Capitals ? 
What are the Stops, or Poinds, and their uses? 

What is Etymology ? 

What is the use of Articles? 

How many Articles are there, and which be they ? 

What is the use of the Definite Article ? 

What is the use of the Indefinite Article? 

What is implied by the absence of the Article ? 

What is a Noun? 

What is a Pronoun ? 

How many kinds of Nouns are there, and which be they ? 

How many kinds of Pronouns are there, and which be they ? 

What is Gender? 

How many, and what are the Genders? 

What is Number? f 

How many, and what are the Numbers 

What is Case? 

How many, and what are the Cases ? 

What is Person ? 

How many, and what are the Persons ? 

What is Declension? 

What rules are there about the Gender of Nouns? . 

What are the rules for the formation of the Plural? 

What are the rules respecting the formation of the Cases ? 

What are Adjectives ? 

What is the Positive Degree? 

What is the Comparative Degree, and how is it formed? 

What is the Superlative Degree, and how is it formed ? 

Are Adjectives Declinable ? 

What is a Verb? 

What is an Active verb? 

What is a Passive verb ? 

What is a Neuter verb ? 

What is a Regular verb 3 

What is an Irregular verb ? 

What is a Defective verb ? 

What is an Impetsonal verb ? ' 

What is a Finite verb ? ., 

How many, and what are the Voices? < -^ 

How many, a. id what are the Moods ? », r 

How many, and what are the Tenses? 

How many, and what are the Numbers ? 

How many, and what are the Persons ? 

What is meant by the Conjugation of Verbs? 

What are the principal Rules for the Conjugation of Verbs J 

What are Participles > 

How many Participles are there, and which be they ? 
How are Participles formed from verbs ? 

Wherein do Participles resemble Verbs, and wheiein do they resemble 
Adjectives ? 

What are Adverbs ? " 

How many, and what are the principal clause* of Adverb* ? 

Do not many Adverbs end in ly t 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

What are Prepositions ? 
Repeat the list of Prepositions ? 

What are Conjunctions ? 

How are Conjunctions divided ? 

Repeat the list of Conjunctions ? 

What are Interjections ? 

How are Interjections divided ? 

Repeat the list of Interjections? 

Have Interjections any affinity with the other Parts of speech ? 

What is a Sentence ? 

How many kinds of Sentences are there ? 
What is a Simple Sentence ? 
What is a Compound Sentence ? 
What is a Period ? 

What is Syntax, and how is it divided ? 
What is Concord ? 
How many Concord? are there > 
What is Government ? 

How is the Nominative to the verb discovered? 

How is the Noun discovered which an Adjective qualifies,or with which 
it agrees ? 

What is the antecedent to a relative, and how js it discovered? 
What is the state of Apposition ? 



It is thought expedient to annex Answers to the few following 
Questions. 

Q. When is it proper to make use of Capital Letters in writing? 

A. The first word of every book, chapter, paragraph, or verse, must be- 
gin with a Capital Letter. Also the first word after a full stop, point of 
interrogation, or point of admiration. Also, all Proper Names 

Q. How many cases have nouns ? 

A. Three, the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. 

Q. How many ways do you write the word Fathers ? 
A. Three ways ; Father's, Possessive singular. 

Fathers, Nominative and Objective Plural. 

Fathers 1 , Possessive Plural. 

Q. What is the nominative Plural of Brother-in-law, Cousin- German' 
and Aid-du-camp f > 

A. Brothers-in-law, Cousins- german, and Aids-du-camp. 

Q. What is the possessive singular of I ? 
A* Mine. 

Q. What is the objective plural of it ? 
A. Them. 

Q. What is the possessive plural of man, woman, and child ? 
A. Men's, women's, and children's* 



ETYMOLOGY. QQ 

Q. What is the nominative plural of calf, ox, mouse, goose, tooth, foot, 
and penny ? 

A. Calves, oxen, mice, geese, teeth, feet, and pence. 

Q. What is the possessive plural of Brother-in-law j 
A. Brothers-in-law's, 

Q. What is the difference between our's and ours f 
A. The former, our's, is the genitive plural of the pronoun I; the latter, 
ours, is a Possessive Pronoun, or Pronominal Adjective. 

Q. Are there not some Nouns that have but one number, and others that 
are the same in both numbers ? 

Yes. The nouns gold, wheat, pitch, wisdom, &c. want the plural ; and 
ashes, bellows, lungs, scissars, thanks, &c. want the singular. Also alms, 
weans, news, pains, riches, mathematics, &c. are the same in both numbers. 

Q Do not some Adjectives relate only to the singular number, and others 
only to the plural ? 

A. A few Adjectives, as one, single, infinite, universal, much, are applica- 
ble only to nouns of the singular number ; and a few others, as two, three 
four, &c. few, many, several, more, &c. are applicable only to nouns plural. 
The Pronominal Adjectives this and that, make these and these in the plural. 

Q. What is the comparative of true, and the superlative of complete ? 
A. Such adjectives as true, complete, infinite, Sec. whose meaning does not 
admit of increase or diminution, have no degrees of comparison. 

Q. Has not the comparative degree something of a dual signification ? 

A. When the qualities of two things are compared, and one exceeds the 
other, it is proper to use the comparative degree; but when the qualities of 
three or more things are compared, and one exceeds the rest, it is proper to 
use the superlative. Thus we »ay, the elder of the two, the eldest of the 
three, the greatest of these (viz. faith, hope, charity,) is charity, 

Q. Ho%v is Syntax divided "> 

A. Into Concord, Government, and Position. 

Q. Is there any thing common, in Accidence, to Nouns, Pronouns, and 
Verbs ? 

A. Nouns, Pronouns, and Verbs, have number and person; in these 
particulars therefore they may agree. Nouns and Pronouns differ from 
Verbs in having genders and cases ; and Verbs differ from Nouns and Pro- 
nouus in having voices, moods, and tenses ; Nouns and Pronouns may 
therefore agree with each other in respect of gender and case, which verbs 
cannot do; and Verbs may agree with each other in voice, mood, and tense, 
which Nouns and Pronouns cannot do. 

Q. How do you discover the Nominative to a Verb, the Substantive to 
an Adjective, or the Antecedent to a Relative? 

A. By asking the question who or zohat, the word answering thereto 
being the Nominative to the Verb, the Substantive to the Adjective, or the 
Antecedent to the Relative, as required. 

Q. Which are the Concords ? 

A. The Verb agrees with its Nominative in number and person — the re- 
lative with its antecedent in gender, number, and person — nouns in apposi- 
tion signifying the same thing agree in case — a, this, that, one, single and a 
few other Adjectives agree only with nouns singular, and these, those, few, 
many, several, &c. can agree only with nouns plural. 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. To what do the rules of Government principally relate ? 
A. To the Possessive and Objective cases of Nouns, and to the Subjunc- 
tive and infinitive Moods of Verbs. 

Q. When is the Nominative Case to be used ? 

A. The Nominative is used four different ways ; 1st, as the subject of the 
Verb; 2dly, when in apposition it agrees with, or when by a conjunction 
it is connected with another nominative: Sdly, the Nominative is used in 
the case absolute; 4thly, it is used after Interjections, except in Ah me. ! 

Q. How is the Possessive Case governed ? 

A. The Possessive Case is governed only by Nouns, the former of two 
Nouns being governed by the latter, when in apposition they signify dif- 
ferent things. 

Q. How is the Objective Ca«e governed ? 

A. The Objective Case is governed by active Verbs, active Participles, 
and Prepositions. It is also governed by the passives of verbs of asking, 
teaching, giving, declaring, and the like, and by adjectives and neuter 
verbs signifying measure, duration, or price; and some neuter verbs are 
followedby nouns in the objective case of like import to themselves. 

Q. How is the Subjunctive Mood governed ? 

A. By Conjunctions expressive of doubt, contingency, or supposition. 

Q. How is the Infinitive Mood governed ? 

A. One Verb governs another in the Infinitive. The Infinitive may also 
be governed by Participles, Adjectives, and Nouns. 

Q. Does ever one rule of Syntax oppose another? 

A. Very rarely ; yet the cases ought to be carefully marked, when they 
occur. We have one instance as follows. Words agreeing should be 
placed near to the words agreed with; yet custom often separates the adjec- 
tive from the noun. 



( 71 ) 

SYNTAX, 

DEFINITIONS. 

1. A SENTENCE is a complete declaration of thought, 

which is either short or moderately long. 

2. There are three kinds of sentences ; viz. Simple, Com- 

pound, and Complex. 

3. A Simple Sentence has in it but one Subject, and one 

Finite Verb; and it contains a declaration, an interro- 
gation, or a command. 

4. A Compound Sentence is made up of two or more 

simple sentences united by means of Connectives, that 
i,s, Conjunctions. Compound Sentences are either 
Concessive, Adversative, or Exclusive ; Conditional, 
Consecutive, Causal, or Explanative ; or Comparative. 
As (1) when we add other predicates to a subject, or 
(2) contrary predicates, or else (3) other subjects to 
the predicate, or (4) contrary subjects; or still other- 
wise (o) to the entire proposition, the etiology, or ac- 
count of the causes; or (6) convenient amplifications, 
comparisons, allusions, 8cc. 

5. A Complex Sentence, called also a Period, is a sort of 

Compound Sentence, in which the sense remains sus- 
pended until the close, and whose members cannot bo 
disjoined, so as to form simple sentences. 

6. Sentences are composed of Members, Clauses, and 

Phrases. — A Member of a Sentence is that part of a 
Compound Sentence which contains one or more 
Clauses ; a Clause that which contains one or more 
Phrases; and a Phrase is two or more words rightly 
put together, forming sometimes a short simple sen- 
tence, and sometimes part of a clause of a compound 
sentence. 

7. It is essential to every Sentence to contain a Proposi- 

tion, that is, to affirm or deny something ; and the 
Proposition contains a Subject, a Predicate, and a 
Copula, The Subject of a Proposition is that con- 
cerning which we affirm or deny, the Predicate that 
which we affirm or deny, and the Copula that where- 
by we affirm or deny. In other word-, the Subject is 
the Nominative to the Verb, the Predicate is an Ad- 
jective or Participle agreeing with and qualifying the 
-Nominative, and a Copula is a Finite Mood or the 
Verb To Be. Thus, snozv is white, riches are not per- 
manent, are two Propositions, in which the Subject* 
are mozo and riches f the Predicates white and perma*- 
nent, and the Copulas is and cue not. 



72 



SYNTAX. 



8. The Attribute of a Sentence is the Predicate and Co- 
pula united, as the sun sets, for is setting; the men deserve 
praise, for are deserving. 

9. The Object of the Verb or Attribute is the thing affected 
by the Action of the Verb. 

10. The State Absolute, or Case Absolute, is an insulated 
word or phrase, whose construction depends on no other 
part of the sentenee. 

11. The State of Apposition is that which results from the 
juxta-position or affinity of two Substantives, of which the 
latter either agrees with, or governs the latter. 

12. The Antecedent to a Relative is a word or phrase going 
before the Relative, for which the said Pronoun Relative 
is used. When a question is asked, the Relative has no 
Antecedent, but the Answer is called the Consequent, and 
follows the Relative, or, as it is then called, Interrogative. 

IS. Ellipsis is an elegant omission of certain words in a sen- 
tence, which would otherwise be repeated. The words 
understood, or omitted, must be supplied in parsing. 



OF ELLIPSIS. 

The Ellipsis, although generally elegant, is not always so. Thus, when 

Laban says to Jacob, Genesis xxxi. 43. — These daughters are my daughters, 

and these children are my children, and these cattle are my cattle, and all thou 

$eest is mine; it is far more elegant than to have said, " These daughters, 

and children, and cattle, and all that thou seest are mine. 
All sorts of words, except interjections, are subject to ellipsis; also parts 

of sentences are often, by an allowable ellipsis, omitted. Thus, 

Article . The bow and arrows were broken ; that is the bow and the arrows. 

Noun: It is better to receive than to do an injury ; that is, it is better 

to receive an injury than to do an injury. 

Pronoun: I came* saw, and conquered ; instead of, I came, I saw, 1 con- 
quered. The book you bought is imperfect, instead of, The 
book which you bought is imperfect. 

Adjective: Much snow and rain fell in February; that is, much snow and 
much rain. 

Verb : He is taller than I; that is, than lam : Will you go or stay? 

that is, will you go ? or, will you stay ? 

Adverb : He speaks and writes well; that is, he speaks well and he writes 

well 

Preposition He passed through York and Nottingham on his way to Lon- 
don; that is, through York and through Nottingham. 

Conjunction: I came, saw, and conquered; that is, I came, and saw, and 
conquered. Twenty-four, instead of, four and twenty. I 
fear we shall be late, instead of, that we shall be late. 

fart of a > To the Almighty we are indebted for life, and every blessing; 

sentence : \ that is, to the Almighty toe are indebted for life, and to him 
hoc are indebted for every blessing. Whose image and super- 
scription is this ? Cesar's ! that is, it is Cesar's image and su- 
perscription. 



SYNTAX. 73 

The Ellipsis of words is put tinder certain grammatical restrictions in or- 
der to prevent obscurity of language, and confusion in the construction. 
Thus, the Ellipsis of the Indefinite Article is not allowable, when the suc- 
ceeding Nouns or Adjectives do not all begin with vowels only, or else with 
consonants only; or when the Nouns are not all of the singular number. 
Thus we must say an honest and a firm minister, not an honest and firm. He 
nets bought an axe, a hammer, and a saw, not an axe, hammer, and sazc, nor yet 
a saw, hammer, and axe. 

The Ellipsis of the Noun is improper when the regimen of the Noun is 
varied. It would be wrong; to say he began and afterwards suffered by this 
injustice, it ou^bt to be, he began this injustice and afterwards suffered by it. 

The Ellipsis of the Nominative, too, i^ generally improper, when the 
succeeding verbs to which it successively belongs, are of different tenses or 
when they pass from affirmation to negation, or the contrary. Thus, 
I have been young and mow am old, should he, 1 have been young and now 
I am old ; instead ofheis rich but not respectable, it is better to say he is rich, 
but he is not respectable. 

When a partial Ellipsis of the Verb takes p'ace, the remaining signs 
ought not to be incongruous with the part omitted, nor with each other. 
It would be very faulty to say / am and have always taken a great deal of 
pains ; this instrument really is, and shews some signs of its being fabricated ; 
we ought to say, lam taking, and I have always taken, a great deal of pains; 
this instrument is really a fabrication, and shews some signs of its being so. 



74 



RULES CF SYNTAX. 

1. The Nominative to a verb, or the subject of discourse, 
may be one or more Nouns or Pronouns, an Infinitive Mood, 
or a greater or less part of a sentence. Also the parts of 
a compound nominative may differ amongst themselves in 
number and person. 

2. A verb agrees with its nominative in number and person, 
as / read, leant thou, the boys play. 

3. Two or more nominatives singular, connected by a co- 
pulative conjunction, are equivalent to a plural nominative. 
But if they be connected by a disjunctive conjunction, they 
are equivalent only to a singular nominative. As Solon and 
Socrates were eminent philosophers of Greece. Neither John 
nor James is arrived. 

4. Two or more nominatives of different numbers, connect- 
ed by a conjunction either copulative or disjunctive, are equi- 
valent to a plural nominative; but the singular nominative 
is to stand first, or farthest from the verb, as he or his compa- 
nions have done this. 

5. When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb 
agrees with the first person rather than the second, and with 
the second rather than the third Also the first person is 
always placed nearest to the verb, and the second person far- 
thest from it. As He and 1 are of one mind, you and he will 
proceed. 

6. The verb to be standing between two nominatives of 
different numbers or persons, agrees with the emphatic nomi- 
native, which should be placed near it, as I am proprietor of 
this estate; the wages of sin is death. 

7. A noun of multitude requires the verb to be plural when 
separation or a Jarge part is meant, but singular when unity 
or the whole is meant; thus, the council z&ere not unanimous ; 
my people do not consider; the council was unanimous ; the par- 
liament is sitting. 

8. Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender, num- 
ber, and person. — Possessive Pronouns are sometimes ac- 
counted relatives, and have an appropriate use depending on 
the number and person of their correlates or antecedents. — 
Of compound antecedents to relatives, the number and per- 
son are estimated the same way as of compound nominatives 
to verbs. Thus, I who speak ; thou who heart st; you and he 
have done your end' avour ; Bacon, Locke, and Newton, have 
promoted the honour of their country. 

9. Of two antecedents signifying the same thing, the rela- 
tive should a-jree with the more emphatic in the sentence. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 75 

Thus, I am the Lord ivho create light and form darkness; thou 
art the friend that was wanted. 

10. If no nominative come between the relative and the 
verb, the relative shall be the nominative to the vein, as, the 
Master who teaches. 

] I. But nf a nominative come between the relative and the 
verb, the relative is governed in the objective case by a verb 
or preposition, or in the possessive case by a noun, belonging 
to the same clause, as, God whom we worship, by whom ail 
things were made, by whose gift we live, is gracious as he is pow- 
erful. 

12. Nouns in apposition, signifyiug the same thing, agree 
in case. When the verb to be, or a passive verb of naming, 
intervenes between two nouns signifying the same thing, this 
intervention is not held as a bar to apposition 1 . As, Cicero the 
orator, we are friends, you believed it to have been him, they 
were called Apostles. 

13. Of two nouns in apposition signifying differently, the 
latter governs the former in the possessive ease. If there be 
several possessives signifying the same thing, in apposition, 
the sign of the possessive is omitted in all but the last; as, 
my Father's house; the children's bread; I left the bill at Smith 
the Banker's, or at Smith, Paine, and Smith, the Bankers'. In 
this last example, the noun house, bank, or office is under- 
stood. 

14. The following definitives a, one, that, this, each, every, 
either, enough, much, infinite, universal, are applied to nouns 

only of the singular number; and two, three, %c. those, these, 
all, both, enow, many, few, several, only to nouns plural. 

15. Many Adjectives are followed by appropriate preposi- 
tions, amongst which the prepositions of, to, for, from, Kith, in, 
most frequently occur. 

Adjectives denoting partition, consciousness, desire, guilt, 
fulness, and want, are often followed by of. As, both of them ; 
conscious of innocence ; desirous oj praise ; gatlty of falsehood ; 
full of sores; destitute of means. 

Adjectives denoting expediency, similitude, or the contrary, 
are generally followed by the prepositions to or for ; but the 
preposition to is often understood; as, advantageous to the 
country, like (to) his Father. 

Adjectives signifying difference, freedom, distance, or the 
like, are often followed by from, as, different from all others ; 
free from errors ; distant from London. 

1(3. The comparative degree, (which is commonly supposed 
to imply duality) is usually followed by the preposition of, or 
the conjunction than ; as, the taller of the tzvo ; greater than I. 

17. The superlative degree (which commonly implies the 



76 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

comparison of three or more objects) is usually followed by 
the prepositions of, amongst, or in ; as, Socrates, the wisest of 
the Athenians, or amongst the Athenians, or in Athens. 

18. Adjectives signifying dimension, price, or duration, and 
also neuter verbs of like import, govern the objective case ; 
as, twenty feet long ; worth Jive shillings; absent sir weeks ;' he 
staid four months. 

19- Active, and compound active, verbs govern the objec- 
tive case; as, fear God; reverence your Parents ; he laughs at 
danger. Some Neuter verbs are also followed by nouns in 
the objective case of like import to themselves; as, to run a 
race ; to dream a dream. 

20. The pas-ives of verbs of asking and teaching, giving, 
declaring, and the like, do sometimes govern the objective 
case ; as, you are asked a question ; I am taught Grammar ; he 
is allowed a premium ; they were given to understand. 

21. Many Active and Neuter verbs are followed by appro- 
priate prepositions, the chief of which are of, to, for, from, 
with, by ; but to is often understood. 

Verbs of accusing and acquitting (besides governing the 
objective case) are followed by of. As, he accuses me of 
theft ; they acquit him of manslaughter. 

Verbs of declaring, giving, promising, refusing, and the 
like, (besides an objective) are followed by the preposition to 
expressed or understood. As, I declare to you the whole 
mystery; he gave consent to the proposal ; they promised (to) 
him a reward. 

Some Verbs, when followed by peculiar prepositions form 
distinct idioms ; as, to labour under; to be sorry for; to be glad 
of; to be angry with a person ; to be angry at a thing. 

22. The subjunctive mood is commonly preceded in, or go- 
verned by the conjunctions if, that, though, unless, fyc; but 
the indicative form of the verb is often used instead of the 
subjunctive. 

23. One verb governs another in the Infinitive. Partici- 
ples, Adjectives, and Nouns, may also govern the Infinitive, 
As, / rejoice to learn, desiring to know, desirous to know, a desire 
to know. 

The sign to of the infinitive is omited after bid, dare, feel, 
hear, let, make, must, need, see. 

24. Active Participles (whether used as Adjectives or Sub- 
stanfives, but denoting time,) govern the objective case; as, a 
man wanting guile ; seeking sin is seekmg shame. 

25. A Substantive with a Participle, whose case depends on 
no other word, is put in the nominative absolute. Infinitives, 
adverbs, adverbial and other phrases, are also sometimes put 
absolutely. As, he being wounded; as to that matter; to con- 
clude; finally; in general. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 77 

26. Adverbs are joined to Verbs, Participles, Adjectives, 
and other Adverbs. They are sometimes joined to nouns, 
taken in the sense of adjectives. As, he reads well, a diamond 

finely set, a truly virtuous man, soon enough, only a child, that is 
only very young. 

The Adverb is usually placed before Adjectives and Parti- 
ciples, between auxiliaries and the principal verb, and after 
the simple tenses of verbs. 

27. Adverbs of motion are joined to verbs of motion, and 
adverbs of rest to verbs of rest, as come hither, stay there. 

£8, Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, as he 
does not write badly, that is, he writes tolerably well. He never 
says, no ; that is, he always says, yes. 

29. Prepositions govern the objective case, as from us, with 
them. 

The Preposition with is sometimes used as a conjunction, 
as he with his attendants enter the apartment. 

SO. The Preposition of before a noun may always supply 
the place of the possessive or genitive case. Thus the exam- 
ples to Rule 13, may be changed into the house of my Father, 
the bread of the children, I left the bill at the house of Smith, 
Paine, and Smith, Bankers. 

31. Conjunctions, in connecting sentences, couple together 
like parts of speech, like moods, and like cases, as he spoke 
firmly and prudently, it was lost and is found, you and I are 
blamed. 

The Conjunction than before whomis construed as a prepo- 
sition. 

32. Interjections govern the nominative case, as, O thou 
hypocrite! Well done I! except in the phrase Ah me I 

33. Derivatives are sometimes construed like their primi- 
tives, as faithfulness to his promises, contentment with our lot. 

34. The words governing are generally set before the words 
governed, and words agreeing with or limiting the significa- 
tion of other words, should stand as near as possible to the 
words agreed with, or whose signification is limited. 



78 SYNTAX. 



CONSTRUCTION OF ARTICLES. 

RULES. 

1. The Indefinite Article is set before nouns of the singular number only, 
a being used before words beginning with a consonant, or with u long, and 
before the numeral one ; and an before words beginning with a vowel, or h 
mute. 

2. The Indefinite Article may be joined with the plurals/ew, many, dozen, 
$core, hundred, thousand, myriad, million, as it is with the collectives brace, 
couple, leash, &c. 

■ 

3. The Indefinite Article sometimes conveys a peculiar meaning to the 
phrase of which it forms a part; as Ac behaved with a little respect, he be- 
haved with little respect ; he has a few friends; he has few friends ; he is a 
better warrior than scholar ; he is a better warrior than a scholar. 

4. An ellipsis of the Indefinite. Article is net allowed when the succeed- 
ing nouns or adjectives of the series do not all begiaeither with a vowel on- 
ly, or else with a consonant only. 

5. The Indefinite Article is sometimes placed between the adjective and 
noun. 

6. The Definite Article is set before nouns of either the singular or plu- 
ral number, and beginning either with a vowel or consonant. It is conse- 
quently more elliptical than the indefinite article. 

7. The Definite Article is sometimes used instead of a Possessive Pro- 
noun, as he looks him full in theface, that is, in his face. 

8. The Definite Article sometimes marks degrees of comparison more 
strongly, as the more you study, the wiser you will become. 

9. Articles are sometimes used indiscriminately, as three shillings a pound, 
or three shillings the pound. 

10. No Article is used before Proper Names, nouns taken in their widest 
sense, and pronouns, except one and other, same and which. Also singulars 
which have no plural do not admit of having the indefinite article before 
them. 

11. Articles sometimes convert Proper into Common, and Common into 
Proper Names; as the king, the milkman, the wheel, a Hercules, a Newton. 

12. Articles sometimes convert Adjectives, and Participles, into Nouns; 
Possessive Pronouns, and nouns in the Possessive Case, have the same 
effect. 

13. Articles generally go before Adjectives. 

14. The repetition of the Article sometimes adds force and perspicuity 
to language ; but on most occasions the article is not repeated. 



SYNTAX. 



79 



CONSTRUCTION OF ARTICLES 



EXAMPLES. 



Improper. 



I. A upright man. 

A honest intention. 

An useful study. 

An hopeless journey. 

An favourable opportunity. 

An race, a enemy. 
? A thousand people says it. 

3. He has few inducements. 

He is a better poet than a philo- 
sop: 

4. I: was a plenteous and early har- 

vest. 
It is an impudent and lying report 
it would be a dangerous and an 

useless concess 

5. Why do you come at a so 

hour ? 

6. The ship, the cargo, the captain, 

the crew, and the passe:. 
were all I 

7. I looked into your book which 
you sent me. 

8. One is sometimes wiser, the less 
wise he makes hirr. 

10. It is a Hercu 
A man is moi 

What resemblance do you find 
between the Jezebel of the 
- and the Semiramis 
of Babylon? 
It is cheese made of a goat's milk 
There is an infinity in space. 
re air is eon 

is the be>t 
beverage, 
jl. V ks a butterfh upon a 

wh-: 

erday heard an excellent 
;ch in the House of Com- 
mons, and had a distinct view 
of the speaker. 
The order- . I man were 

strictly ob 
A s iviour of mankind. 
A P- u born in 1688. 

A reformation began in 1534. 

•k place in 1688. 
12. The stedrast to his purpose. 
The patient in sp 
My describing the object. 



Proper. 

An upright mir. 

An honest intention. 

A useful sin 

A hopeless jour:. 

A favourable opportu:. 

A race, an enemy. 

A thousand people say it. 

He has a few inducements. 

He is a better poet than philosopher. 

It was a plenteous and an early har- 
vest. 

It is an impudent and lying a report. 

It would be a dangerous and useless 
concession. 

Why do you come at so late an hour : 
or, at an hour so late ? 

The ship and cargo, together with 
the captain, crew, and passen- 
gers, were all lost. 

I looked into the book which 
sent me. 

One is sometimes the wiser, the less 
■ m one pretends to. 

It is an Herculean task. 

What resemblance do you find be- 
tween Jezebel of the Hebrews 
and Semiramis of Babylon? 

. cheese made of goat's milk. 
Space is infinite. 

Pure air is conducive to health, and 
plain water is the best beverage. 

breaks a butterfly upon the 

--•relay heard an'excellent speech 
in the House of O>mmo: 
had a distinct view of the mem- 
ber who spoke. 

The orders of the good man were 
strictly obeved. 

The saviour of mankind. 

The Pretender was hern in 1688. 

The reformation began in 1534. 

The revolution took place in 1688 

The stedi'ast of purpose. 

The patient of spirit. 

Mj describing of the object. 



80 SYNTAX, 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS. 

1. Nouns are put in the Nominative Case when they are the subject of 
the verb, as also when they follow the Interjections O ! Oh ! and Ah ! ex- 
cept ah me ! 

2. The Nominative Absolute, or Case Absolute, takes place when a sub- 
stantive with a participle, an infinitive, an adverb, or an interjection, con- 
stitute independent phrases in a sentence, as Philip being dead, To con- 
clude, Finally, Alas ! 

3. The Possessive case is governed by the noun following when two sub- 
stantives in apposition signify differently. 

4. Of two or more Nouns either agreeing or coupled together in the Pos- 
sessive Case, the last only has the sign of the Genitive. But if the substan- 
tive coupled together are used emphatically, each retains the sign of the 

Possessive. 

5. The Objective Case is governed by Active Verbs, and by Prepositions. 

6. The Objective we follows the interjection Ah ! and the objective whom 
the conjunction than. 

7. After the interrogation, the consequent has the same case as the 

interrogative. 

8. Nouns in apposition, when they signify the same thing, agree incase. 

9. The verb to be has the same case after it that it has before it. 

10. Conjunctions connect like cases. 

11. The Nominative is placed either before the verb, or after it, as between 
the auxiliary and the participle. The Nominative generally goes before the 
verb; but in the following cases it follows after it; 1st. in interrogative, 
and imperative sentences; 2dly. in hypothetical sentences, the conjunction 
if being understood; Sdly. when the adverbs here, there, then, thence, hence, 
thus,&c. precede the verb ; or when the conjunctions, neither, nor, fol- 
lowing after verbs preceded by not, or neither, have verbs after them; 4thly. 
the nominative is sometimes placed after verbs neuter. 

12- The Possessive Case immediately precedes the noun which governs it. 
The noun governing is somtimes understood; as whose am I, that is, whose 
property am I ; a picture of my friends, that is, oj my friend's pictures, or be- 
longing to his collection. 

13. The Objective Case follows the verb or preposition which governs it. 
It may however sometimes precede the governing verb, if no obscurity 
thence arise. The relatives who, which, that, and zchat always precede the 
verb, and in the objective they sometimes precede the preposition. 

14. All Nouns preceded by interjections are of the second person. 

15. Two or more singulars connected by a copulative conjunction ex- 
pressed or understood, are equivalent to a plural. 

16. The first person is accounted more worthy than the second, the 
second than the third. 



SYNTAX. 



81 



CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS. 



EXAMPLES. 



Improper. 

1. Was you invited ? 
The horses is feeding. 
Methinks, methought. 
Ah miserable them ! 

2. Whom being past hopes of re- 

covery. 
Them being placed in this awk- 
ward predicament. 

3. A manners' man commonly 

makes his fortune. 



4. A preceptor's and friend's advice. 
Laws are enacted by the King, 
Lords, and Commons' autho- 
rity. 

5. I love he 

Who does he speak to ? 

6. Ah unhappy I ! 

Alfred, than who, a greater king 
never reigned. 

7. Who is there? — Me. 

With whom did I leave it ?— I. 
To whom did I give it? — He. 
Whose is this? — Ours. 

8. The earth, sea, and air's inha- 

bitants. 

9. It is me, it is us. 

10. It is I, thou, and his. 

He told it to Robert and I. 
Whom say ye that I am ? 

12. They implicitly obeyed the Pro- 

tector's, as they c tiled him, 
imperious mandates. 

13. This fracas a great dispute occa- 

sio ned 

This preferment he was worthy 
of. 

14. Ah Lucifer, son of the morning, 

how is he fallen ! 

15. John and James has won the 

day. 
Peace and content dwells with the 
lowly. 



Proper. 
Were you invited? 
The horses are feeding. 
I think, I thought. 
Ah miserable they ! 
Who being past all hopes of recovery . 

They being placed in this awkward 
predicament. 

A man's manners commonly make 
his fortune; or, the manners 
of a man commonly make his 
fortune. 

The master's instruction or the in- 
struction of the master. 

A preceptor and friend's advice. 

Laws are enacted by the King's, 
Lords', and Commons' autho- 
rity, or by the authority of the 
King, Lords, and Commons. 

I love him. 

Whom does he speak to ? 

Ah unhappy me : 

Alfred, than whom a better king 
never reigned. 

Who is there? — I 

With whom did I leave it? — Me. 

To whom did I give it? — Him. 

Whose is this? — Our's. 

The earth's, sea's, and air's inha- 
bitants. 

It is I, it is we. 

It is mine, thine, and his. 

He told it to Robert and me. 

Who say ye that 1 am ? 

They implicitly obeyed the imperious 
mandates of the Projector, as 
they called him. 

A great dispute occasioned this fra- 
cas.— or, This fracas occa- 
sioned a great dispute. 

Of this preferment he was worthy— 
or, he was worthy of this pre- 
fermen . 

Ah Lucifer son of the morning, how 
art thou fallen ! 

John and James have won the day. 

Peace and content dwell with the 
lowly. 



M 



82 SYNTAX. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. 

RULES. 

1. Pronouns are divided into Prepositive and Subjunctive, of which the 
former are, or may be, used to begin a sentence, as I, thou, he, she, it, this, 
that, other, any, some, one, none; the latter to subjoin a clause or sentence 
to something previous, as who, which. 

2. The Possessives my, thy, her, our, your, their, are used immediately 
before nouns, or before nouns preceded by an adjective ; but mine, thine, 
hers, ours, yours, theirs, are used absolutely ; that is, they are separated by 
a verb from the noun with which they agree, or else the- noun is understood 
with which they agree. 

3. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns, with their compounds, are al- 
ways placed before the verb which belongs to their own member of the 
sentence, and they are generally the first or second word in the said mem- 
ber. The Relative should always stand near to its own antecedent. 

4. Demonstrative Pronouns not having a substantive annexed are nor 
always proper to begin a sentence. 

5. Pronouns Jo not govern cases or moods, but they influence the num- 
ber and person of verbs, and sometimes of one another. 

G. The Pronoun I is of th3 first person, thou of the second, who and that 
of the first, second, or third, according to the person of the antecedent; all 
other pronouns used substantively are of the third person. 

7. Pronouns which have cases are governed as nouns. 

8. Pronouns which have no cases are construed as adjectives. 

9. The Pronoun it sometimes stands in apposition with other nomina- 
tives, as it is I, it is they. 

10. Possessive Pronouns agree in genus with the possessor; that is, my 
relates to I, thy to thou, his to he, ours to zee, &c. 

11. The Pronoun who is called personal (in a peculiar sense), and which 
impersonal. The former has for its antecedent human and superior beings, 
the latter inferior animals, vegetables, minerals, and the names of qualities 
and unknown substances. Yet which is sometimes used personally, as 
which of the men ? Our Father which art in heaven. 

12. The Relative that is equivalent to who or which. Its peculiar use is 
after a compound antecedent, consisting of persons and things, after the in- 
terrogative who or ichich ; after the demonstrative same, and after an ad- 
jective in the superlative degree. It is also used to prevent the too frequent 
repetition of who or which. The relative that is not often employed as the 
regimen of a preposition. 

13. The Relative agrees with its antecedent, and the interrogative with 
its consequent, in number and person. Of two antecedents the relative 
agrees with the more emphatic. Of a compound antecedent the number 
and person are estimated the same way as of a compound nominative to a 
verb. Whoever, whosoever, and other compound relatives, sometimes sup- 
ply the place of both antecedent and relative. 

14. If no nominative come between the relative and the verb, the rela- 
tive shall be the nominative to the veib. 

15. But if a nominative come between the relative and the verb, the re- 
lative is governed, as a noun in the possessive or objective case by a nouu, 
verb, or preposition, belonging to the same member or clause of the sen- 
tence. 

16. The Demonstratives that and this, those and these, are sometimes 
equivalent to the former and t he latter. 



SYNTAX. 



83 



CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS 



EXAMPLES. 



Improper, 



Proper, 



1. The sufferers are we. 

Whose reputation is blasted in 
the eyes of his Friends, he is 
undone. 

2. 

3. He loved learning more than play, 

in which he so much excelled. 

4. Those are the men whom I told 

you of. 

Those who sow in tears may reap 

in joy. 



& 6. Says I. 

Thou's taller. 

Them are not what I want. 

& 16. Let them and I settle that 

affair. 
You are older than him. 
Whom do men say that I am ? 
Who should I meet but my old 

friend ? 
Who does this belong to ? 



9. Who goes there ? It is me. 
Who broke these glasses? It was 
him. 

10. Keeping thy tongue from speak- 

ing evil of your neighbour. 

Keep your tongue from speaking 
evil of ihy neighbour. 

Each shall answer for them- 
selves. 

11. The child, whom you see, has 

lost both his father and mother. 

12. This is the largest oak which I 

have ever seen. 
I have heard the same story as 
you did. 

13. Nathan said to David, thou art 

the man that judges. 
Nathan said to David, thou art 

the man who didst this evil. 
The friends and amusements 

which he chose, did not add to 

his virtue. 

14. If the Lord forsake us, whom is 

there can make us stand? 



We are the sufferers. 
He/whose reputation is blasted in tjia 
eyes of his Friends, is undone. 

Whose book is that? Mine. 

He loved learning, in which he so 

much excelled, more than play. 
Those persons are the men whom I 

told you of. 
They who sow in tears may reap in 

j°y- 

This is the Lord's doing. 

Say I. 

You are taller. 

These are not what I want. 

Let them and me settle that affair. 

You are older than he. 
Who do men say that 1 am ? 
Whom should I meet but my old 

friend : 
To whom does this belong? 
I have other proofs besides these. 
Who goes there ? It is I. 
Who broke these glasses : It was he. 

Keep thy tongue from speaking evil 

of thy neighbour. 
Keep your tongue from speaking evil 

of ;your neighbour. 
Each shall answer for himself. 

He has done his d nty,let them do theirs. 
The child, which you see, has lost 

both its father and mother. 
This is the largest oak that 1 have 

ever seen. 
I have heard the same story that you 

did. 
Nathan said to David, thou that 

judgest, art the man. 
Nathan said to David, thou art the 

man who did this evil. 
The friends and amusements that, he 

chose, did not add to his virtue. 

If the Lord forsake us, who isthei'e 
that can make us stand r 



M 2 



84 SYNTAX, 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES, 

RULES. 

. Every adjective qualifies or belongs to a noun, which is always near, 
and often follows it; but as all. Englisn adjective ■_■ are indeclinable, they 
cannot be said to agree in gender, number, and case, with the nouns to 
which they belong. The way to mid out the substantive to an adjective 
is to ask the question who or what. 

2. Some definitives and adjectives are joined only to nouns of the singu- 
lar number, as «, an, one, this, that, each, every, either, neither, enough, 
much, infinite, universal; others are joined only to nouns plural, as two, 
three, four, &c. these, those, all, both, enow, many, more, few, several. 

But to thi^ rule there are exceptions, as afew, a thousand, many a time, all 
Jlesh is grass, more discord. 

3. Two or more adjectives of the same degree of comparison may qualify 
one noun ; and two or more nouns of the same number may be qualified by 
one adjective. 

4. Adjectives signifying dimension, price, or duration, govern nouns of 
like signification in the objective case. 

5. A good many adjectives are followed by appropriate prepositions, as 
of, to, for, with, from, by in. 

Verbal adjectives, and such as signify an affection of the mind, are com- 
monly followed by of. Partitives, comparatives, superlatives, numerals, 
and adjectives of plenty and want, are also often followed by of. 

Adjectives denoting expediency, likeness, or the contrary, are followed 
by to ox for. But to is often understood. 

Adjectives signifying difference, freedom, distance, and the like, are fol- 
lowed for the most part by from. 

6. The comparative degree, which implies the comparison of two ob- 
jects, may be followed by the prepositions of or by, or the conjunction than, 
as he is a year older than you, and is taller by an inch. 

7. The superlative degree, which implies the comparison of three or 
more objects, may be followed by the prepositions of, amongst, or in, or by 
the relative that, as Socrates zoos the wisest of the philosophers in Athens that 
the history of Greece makes us acquainted zoith. 

8. Double comparisons are improper, as more wiser, most wisest. Yet we 
meet with the phrase Most Highest, meaning the Almighty, which SGme 
have deemed a peculiar elegance in the English language, but which others 
would set aside as contrary to rule. 

9. Such adjectives as true, cloudless, infinite, terrestrial, &c. do not admit 
of degrees of comparison. 

10. Besides the three grammatical degrees of comparison, there may be 
an infinitude of others, as by adding the termination ish,or by the addition 
of such particles as rather, so, somezchat, too-, in which however it is to be 
noted that such is sometimes improperly used for that comparative so, and 
that the use of somewhat in comparison is deemed inelegant. 

11. By means of articles and prepositions, adjectives may be used sub- 
stantively or adverbially, as the hand of the diligent maketh rieh,in general, 

in short. 

12. Adjectives qualify nouns only. We ought not therefore to say ex- 
treme rich, every now and then, but extremely rich, repeatedly, or at short 
intervals 



SYNTAX, 



*5 



CONSTRU 



CTION O 



F ADJECTIVES, 



EXAMPLES. 



Improper. 



Proper. 



1. I have got a new pair of boots 

which pinch exceedingly. 
She has found her new pair of 
bracelets ihat was missing. 

2. These kind of pursuits will ruin 

you. 
Those sort of dealings are unjust. 
We have been idle this two 

hours. 

3. It is cold and very wet. 

The sea breeze is salutary and 

most pleasant. 
This commodious house and 

grounds. 
His exemplary virtue and talents 

4. . __ 

5. Free of pain. 

Labouring with sickness and want. 
Whoso is angry at his brother. 
Impatient to restraint. 

6. & 7. David was younger than 

his brothers. 

The summer half year is the 
longest by eight days. 

The tallest of the twins is John. 

More snow and rain falls in Fe- 
bruary than in the other months 
of the year. 

8. The moon is a lesser body than 

the sun. 

The elephant is the most great- 
est of quadrupeds, and the 
mouse is the very least. 

Walking is a more healthier ex- 
ercise than riding. 

9. He was the chiefest speaker. 

He set a most perfect example. 
The idea of eternity is too infi- 
nite for our conception. 
10. You are always in such a hurry. 
That is somewhat odd. . 
It is too true. 
The decanter is too full. 
12. They are a new married couple. 
Live agreeable to reason. 
He could easier oppose one than 
two. 



I have got a pair of new boots which 
pinch severely. 

She has found her pair of new brace- 
lets that were missing. 

This kind of pursuits will ruin you. 

That sort of dealings is unjust. 
We have been idle these two hours. 

It is very cold and wet. 

The sea breeze is salutary and plea- 
sant. 

This commodious house and these 
pleasant grounds. 

His exemplary virtue and great ta- 
lents. 

This horse is 15 hands high, 6 years 
old, and he is worth 70 guineas. 

Free from pain. 

Labouring under sickness and want. 

Whoso is angry with his brother. 

Impatient of restraint. 

David was younger than any of his 
brothers. 

The summer half year is the longer 
by eight days. 

The taller of the twins is John. 

More snow and rain fall in February, 
than in any of the other months of 
the year. 

The moon is a less body than the 
sun. 

The elephant is the greatest of qua- 
drupeds, and the mouse is the 
least. 

Walking is a more healthy exercise 
than riding. 

He was the chief speaker. 

He set a perfect example. 

The idea of eternity is too great for 
our conception. 

You are always in so great a hurry. 

That is rather strange. 

It is a melancholy truth. 

The decanter is almost full. 

They are a newly married couple. 

Live agreeably to reason. 

He could more easily oppose one 
than two. 



86 SYNTAX. 



CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 
RULES. 

1. Every finite verb agrees with its own nominative in number and per- 
son. By apposition, we may say it is I, it is thou, it is we, &c. The impe- 
rative mood generally has the nominatives thou, and ye or you, elliptical. 

2. Every nominative (unless it be in apposition, or connected by means 
of a conjunction with another nominative, or unless it be in the case abso- 
lute, or follow an interjection,) should have its own verb expressed or legi- 
timately understood, and every verb should have its own nominative. 

3. An Infinitive mood, a phrase, or a clause of a sentence, may be the 
subject of discourse, or nominative to a verb in the third person singular. 

4. Nouns of multitude are construed as singular, if the whole without 
division or separation be spoken of; otherwise, they are accounted plural. 

5. A series of nominatives may belong to a common verb, and series of 
verbs to a common nominative. If the nominatives be of different persons 
or of different numbers, the second person or singular number is placed 
first, and the first person or plural number is placed last. It is always safe 
to place the verb after the first nominative and to make it agree with the 
same, leaving it understood, or else repeating it to the other nominatives. 
But if the verb be placed after the last nominative, it should agree in per- 
son with the most worthy, and in number with the nominative, which is 
plural. 

6. Two or more nominatives singular, connected by a copulative con- 
junction, are equivalent to a plural nominative ; but if they be connected 
by a disjunctive conjunction, a verb singular is required. 

7. A verb agrees with the more emphatic of two nominatives in appo- 
sition. 

8. The Infinitive to be has the same case after that it has before it. 

9. The subjunctive mood is preceded or governed by conjunctions im- 
plying doubt, purpose, contingency, or supposition, as, whether, that, if, 
although. 

10. The Infinitive mood is governed by verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
sometimes by nouns. It is never governed by prepositions. The sign to 
is omitted after must, bid, dare, let, make, need, behold, observe, see, hear, feel, 

11. The tenses of verbs should be arranged according to their nature 
and to the just order of time. The present of the Infinitive is of the same 
time as its governing verb. The perfect of the Infinitive exceeds the time 
of its governing verb. 

12. Universal and immutable truths are always expressed in the present 
tense. 

13. Do not confound the uses of had and would, shall and will, may and 
can, should and would, might and could. 

14. Active and compound active verbs, also passive verbs of asking, 
teaching, offering, promising, telling, and the like, govern the objective 
case. 

15. Some neuter verbs govern nouns of like signification in the objec- 
tive case. 

16. Many verbs are followed by peculiar or appropriate prepositions 



SYNTAX. 



CON 



,* 



UCT10N OF VERBS, 



EXAMPLES. 



Improper. 

1. You was late. 
Thou's a stranger. 
Says I. 

The ladies is come. 
He is one of those men that was 
taken up at the fair. 

2. Newton, though he had great 

genius, vet he had great mo- 
modesty. 
The book which you lent me, 

and is so instructive, I return. 
These we have extracted, and 

are proofs sufficient, 
fi. Wisdom and virtue is a better 

inheritance than gold and 

silver. 
War, pestilence, and famine, 

visits the earth for the sins of 

men. 
Neither good nor evil come of 

themselves. 
Wisdom and not opulence were 

his pursuit. 

7. Thou, John Thomas, affirms this? 
I am the Lord, who creates light, 

and forms darkness. 

8. It cannot be them. 

I believe it to have been they. 

9. He doubts whether it is true. 
If I was asked. 

10. He need not to be afraid. 
Make the people to sit down. 
I comes for to know. 

11. I expected to have found him 

better. 
I intended to have done it to day. 
The Lord has given, and the 

Lord has taken away. 

12. He always maintained that 

honesty was the best policy. 

13. Had you rather not? 

You had better follow his advice. 

Will you go to the play ? 
I will stay at home. 
We would suppose the contrary. 
16. When you arrive to Lisbon. 
He did not profit of this oppor- 
tunity. 
Whoso is angry at his brother. 



Proper. 
You were late. 
Thou art a stranger. 
Say I. 

The ladies are come. 
He is one of those men that were 

taken up at the fair. 
Newton, though he had great genius, 

yet had great modesty. 

The book which you lent me, and 
which is so instructive, I return. 

These we have extracted, and they 
are proofs sufficient. 

Wisdom and virtue are a better in- 
heritance than gold and silver. 

War, pestilence, and famine, visit 
the earth for the sins of men. 

Neither good nor evil cometh of 

itself. 
Wisdom and not opulence was his 

pursuit. 
Thou, John Thomas, affirmest this ? 
I am the Lord, who create light, and 

form darkness. 
It cannot te they. 
I believe it to have been them. 
He doubts whether it be true. 
If I were asked. 
He needs not be afraid. 
Make the people sit down. 
I come to know. 
I expected to find him better. 

I intended to do it to day. 

The Lord gave and the Lord has 
taken away. 

He always maintained that honesty 
is the best policy. 

Would you rather not ? 

You would do better to follow his 
advice. 

Shall you go to the play? 

I shall stay at home. 

We should suppose the contrary. 

When you arrive at Li>bon. 

He did not profit by this opportu- 
nity. 

Whoso is angry with his brother. 



S8 SYNTAX. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES, 



RULES. 

1. Participles ending in ing, ed, or otherwise, being joined to the auxili- 
ary verb to be, form active, passive, or neuter verbs. 

2. Participles in ing are used four different ways : 1st, as Participles strictly 
go called ; 2dly, as Gerunds, or verbal nouns implying time. la either of 
these cases, the regimen of the verb is retained. 3dly, as Adjectives; 
4thly, as Nouns. The construction of the participle is therefore various. 

3. The Participle in ing is commonly accounted a noun, when it is pre- 
ceded by an article, or by any word that precludes the use of the article, as 
a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive pronoun, going before it. 

4. Participles govern the case of their own verbs. Active Participles 
govern the objective case. Passive Participles of asking, teaching, offering, 
promising, telling, and the like, also require the objective. 

5. Participles passive are commonly followed by the preposition by. 

6. The perfect participle and the imperfect of the indicative, are alike in 
most verbs ; but when they differ, their uses are not to be confounded. 
With the auxiliary hate, the perfect participle is to be used. 

7. A series of auxiliaries may be followed by a common participle, or a 
single auxiliary may be followed by a series of participles. In either case, 
the word expressed and the words understood should be suitable to each 
other. 

8. The auxiliary is always placed before the participle in the compound 
tenses of verbs. 

9. The participle is commonly placed after the adverb. 

10. The participle is placed between the noun which it qualifies, and the 
noun which it governs. 

11. Wc seldom or never find active and passive, or present and past, 
participles of different verbs, coupled together by conjunctions. 

12. A substantive with a participle, whose ease depends on no other 
word, is put in the nominative absolute. 

13. The Gerund in ing is often made Absolute, in the same manner, 
and to the same sense, as the Infinitive Mood; as, " This generally speak- 
ing, is the consequence." 



SYNTAX. 



so 



CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 



EXAMPLES. 



Improper. 



3. By the observing these rules. 



By a patient hearing your ad- 
versary's reply. 

* At Paul's teaching the Gentiles, 
the Jews were offended. 



4. Having premised with these cir- 

cumstances. 
Extending to thirty miles. 
Finding fault with every thing. 
Labouring with distress. 

5. Beloved of his acquaintance. 
Hated of all. 

6. I have wrote a Letter. 
He was chose President. 
You have shook. 

The sun has ruse. 

We have drank, eat. 

We drunk. 

They run yesterday. 

They had went before sunrise. 

7. Such treachery ever has and will 

be reprobated. 
This dedication may serve for 

almost any book that has, is, 

or shall be published. 
This part of knowledge has been 

growing, and will continue to 

do so. 
9. The expedition was planned 

wisely. 



10. 



12. 



A man time serving. 

An opinion by experience con- 
firmed. 

Whom being dead, all competi- 
tion ceased. 

Him excepted, we all agree. 

Them having escaped, others 
took courage. 



Proper. 



By the observing of these rules, or 
by observing these rules, or by ob- 
serving of these rules. 

By a patient hearing of, or by pa- 
tiently hearing, your adversary's 
reply. 

At Paul teaching the Gentiles, or at 
Paul's teaching of the Gentiles, 
or because Paul taught the Gen- 
tiles, the Jews were offended. 

Having premised these circumstan- 
ces. 

Extending thirty miles. 

Finding fault at every thing. 

Labouring under distress. 

Beloved by his acquaintance. 

Hated by all. 

I have written a Letter. 

He was chosen President. 

You have shaken. 

The sun has risen. 

We have drunk, eaten. 

W T e drank. 

They ran yesterday. 

They had gone before sunrise. 

Such treachery ever has been, and 
will be reprobated. 

This dedication may serve for almost 
any book that has been, is, or shall 
be published. 

This p«rt of knowledge has been 
growing, and will continue to 
grow. 

The expedition was wisely planned. 

A time serving man. 

An opinion confirmed by experience. 

Who being dead, all competition 

ceased. 
He excepted, we all agree. 
They having ebcaped, others took 

courage. 



< 



• Verbal Nouns in ing do sometimes govern the objective case, but the construction is rar«, 
and rather inelegant 



90 SYNTAX. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

RULES. 

1. Adverbs are joined to verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
They are also sometimes joined to nouns taken in the sense of adjectives. 
Adverbs should not be construed as nouns or adjectives, nor should adjec- 
tives be construed as adverbs, except in a few idioms, as before note, until 
then, exceeding or exceedingly great, he strikes hard, it rains fast, you speak 
too loud, the pulse beats quick, he fights shy, it tastes good. 

2. Some words, which are accounted prepositions when they govern a 
case, are used as adverbs when they do not govern a case^ as above, beneath, 
before, after, Sec. 

3. Some words which are accounted conjunctions when they connect 
sentences, are used as adverbs, when they denote circumstances, as accord- 
ingly, consequently, so, then, therefore, when, &c. 

4. The adverbs so and as are sometimes used pronominally for such or that, 
but these pronouns are never used adverbially instead of so or as, 

b. These adverbs from whence, from hence, from thence, are commonly 
and elegantly abbreviated into whence, hence, thence. 

6. These adverbs wherezoilhal, wherefore, whereas, whereof, wherein, where- 
with, whereby, hereby, thereby, and the like, excepting therefore, are but little 
used. 

7. Somewhat, somchozo, unyhov>, may be used as adverbs or nouns. They 
seem to be rather adverbs. Their use is not much approved of. 

8. There at the beginning of a sentence is commonly nothing but a mere 
expletive, serving to throw the nominative behind the verb, and, by so 
doing, to excite attention. 

9. An adjective preceded by a preposition without a substantive, is com- 
monly accounted an adverb, or adverbial phrase. 

10. Adverbs of motion are joined to verbs of motion, and adverbs of rest 
to verbs of rest. 

11. Two negatives destroy each other, or convey an indirect affirmation. 
The phrase and not then neither is an exception. 

The promiscuous use of ever and never is improper. 

12. Adverbs and adverbial phrases are sometimes construed absolutely, 
or are put in the state absolute. 

13. Adverbs have most force at the beginning or end of a sentence, and 
most precision in the middle. They should stand in the place which the 
sense directs, or as near as possible to the words whose signification they 
limit. They are usually set after the simple tenses of verbs, after the first 
auxiliary in the compound tenses, and before nouns, adjectives, and parti- 
ciple*. They should not separate a verb and its regimen. Enough follows 
the adjective. We are sometimes apt to place the adverbs not and only too 
forward in a sentence. The position of the adverb only is commonly difter- 
en from that of the adjective only. Adverbs not constituting a phrase 
should be separated. 



SYNTAX, 



91 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADVEKBS. 

"EXAMPLES. 



Improper. 
1. He acts conformable, or agree- 
able to orders. 

She thinks mean of the rest. 

Miserable poor. 

Bitter cold. 

Indifferent well, extreme bad. 

Excessive good, excellent well. 

Extreme dear, monstrous lucky. 

He spoke bolder than at first. 

The day was spent very comfor- 
table. 

The above advice. 

The then ministry. 

Thine often infirmities. 

This takes soonest and deepest 
root. 

The parcel arrived safely. 

The manner of it was thus. 

Whether present or no. 
4- He has such red eyes. 

You have made such a short visit 
5. From whence does this spring. 

From thence arise doubts. 
6 He has nothing wherewithal to 
procure food or clothing- 

10. Come here, go there. 
Where are. you going ? 

11. I cannot by no means consent. 
I never consented, nor do not 

now. 
Neither did Cicero,no more than 

PJato, ever mention the resur- 
rection of the body. 
Charm he never so wisely. 
Should you promise never so 

much. 
I seldom or ever see him now. 
This clock is seldom or ever 

right. 
13. Renounce for ever your wicked 

associates. 
Vice creeps on always by degrees 
They were struck forcibly. 
His mind was chearful always. 
These rules have carefully been 

transcribed. 
I have only learned Latin two 

years. 
This book only wants the title 

page. 

We only discharge our duty. 
Theism can only be opposed to 
Polytheism, or Atheism. 



Proper. 
He acts conformably or agreeably to 

orders. 
She thinks meanly of the rest. 
Miserably poor. 
Bitterly cold. 

Indifferently well, extremely bad. 
Excessively good, excellently well. 
Extremely dear, monstrously lucky. 
He spoke more boldly than at firsr. 
The day was spent very comfortably 

The advice given above. 

The ministry of that time. 

Thy frequent infirmities. 

This soonest takes root and most 

deeply. 
The parcel arrived safe. 
The manner of it was this. 
Whether present or not. 
He has eyes so red. 
You have made so short a visit. 
Whence does this spring. 
Thence arise doubts. 
He has not the means of procuring 

either food or cloaths. 
Come hither, go thither. 
Whither are you going ? 
I can by no means consent. 
I never did consent, and do not now. 

Neither did Cicero, any more than 
Plato, ever mention the resurrec- 
tion of the body. 

Charm he ever so wisely. 

Should you promise ever so much. 

I seldom or never see him now. 
This clock is seldom or never right. 

Renounce your wicked associates for 
ever. 

Vice always creeps on by degrees. 

They were forcibly struck. 

His mind was always chearful. 

These rules have been carefully tran- 
scribed. 

I have been learning Latin two years 
only. 

Only this book wants the title page. 

This book wants the title page only. 

We discharge only our duty. 

Theism can be opposed only to Poly- 
theism, or to Atheism, or to Chris- 
tianity. 



92 SYNTAX. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

RULES. 

1. Prepositions are set before nouns and pronouns, and govern the ob- 
jective case. 

The relatives who and zchich used formerly to be placed at the beginnins, 
and the governing preposition at the end of a clause. This commendable 
practice is now disused, unless whom or which be elliptical, or unless the re- 
lative that he used. 

2. Prepositions are sometimes joined to adverbs, as before now, until then, 
wherein. 

3. Inseparable prepositions, or such as belong to compound active verbs, 
have no regimen of themselves. Many verbs are followed by appropriate 
prepositions. 

4. Derivatives are often followed by those prepositions which accompa- 
nied their primitives; but this is not always the case, as in averse to, ac- 
cording to, an exception to. 

5. Every preposition must have an object expressed or understood. I-f 
there be but one preposition, its object must be expressed. 

Some prepositions are accounted adverbs, and others conjunctions, when 
they have no object, but either denote circumstances, or connect sentences, 
as above, before, beneath, after, &c. Against, for, till, with, &c. The plural 
construction that may arise from considering with as a conjunction, ought 
to be avoided. 

6. Prepositions and their regimen ought not to be separated, unless by 
an intervening article or adjective, pointing out or qualifying the regimen. 

7. Prepositions, whether used adverbially or not, ought not to be con- 
strued as adjectives. It is therefore wrong to say an afterclap, un after- 
thought, the above advice, the Under Musters, the Under Sheriff. 

8. These participles according to, during, concerning, respecting, touching, 
and the imperative except, are commonly accounted prepositions. 

9. Without, but, and than, were anciently both prepositions and conjunc- 
tions. Without is now a preposition only, but a conjunction, and than a 
conjunction, except in the phrase than whom, where it continues a prepo- 
sition. 

10. Between and betwixt denote the relation of one object to two others. 

11. Among and amongst denote the relation of one object to more than 
two others. 

12. O/'is used after adjectives signifying fulness or want, partitives, com- 
paratives, and superlatives, and after verbs of accusing and acquitting. 
The possessive case may be changed into the objective with of before it, 
tut the converse does not always hold good. 

13- To and for follow adjectives of expediency or similitude, and verbs of 
giving, declaring, promising, and the like. 

14. From is frequently used after adjectives or verbs denoting fieedom, 
distance, difference, withdrawing, and the like. 

15. With is often used after verbs signifying to compare, agree, or mix. 

16. By generally follows passive verbs, and its regimen is the agent. 

17. The prepositions to, for, from, in, on, are often elliptical. 



SYNTAX, 



93 



CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS*. 



EXAMPLES. 



Improper. 

I. Who do yon speak to ? 

It was told only to he and I. 
It rests not with she but they. 

3. I will wait of you to-morrow. 
He is resolved of going. 

He knows nothing on it. 

More than we thought for. 

I was thinking on that. 

He changes to the better. 

If vice should prevail upon vir- 
tue. 

I am disappointed in the hope. 

We are disappointed of the play, 
{we saw.) 

4. Depending of his relations. 
In compliance of your request. 
Agreeable with these orders. 

5. The master with his servant 

were lost. 

6. The workmanship was of, as I 

have been told, the finest de- 
scription. 
The progress was slow of this 

invention. 
Before the discovery was made 

of America. 
Fit either for riding or drawing. 
9. Without you see miracles, yon 

will not believe. 
He is older than me. 
All attended but him. 
10. There has been a battle between 

the French, Russians, and 

Austrians. 

II. They quarrel amongst one ano- 

ther. 
They have hid themselves 

amongst the grass. 
Among a nation so civilized. 
12. Accused for robbing. 
First among many. 
There is no need for that. 
18. Averse from study. 

14. Free of all blame. 

This is different to what he told 

me. 
To dissent with. 

15. 16. He was slain with the hand 

by a sword. 



Proper. 

Whom do you speak to? 

It was told only to him and me. 

It rests not with her but them. 

I will wait on you to-morrow. 

He is resolved on going. 

He knows nothing of it. 

More than we thought of. 

I was thinking of that. 

He changes for the better. 

If vice should prevail over virtue. 

I am disappointed of the hope. 
We are disappointed in the play. 

Depending on his relations. 

In compliance with your request. 

Agreeable to these o'rders. 

The master and his servant were 

lost. 
The workmanship, as I have been 

told, was of the finest description. 

The progress of this invention was 
slow. 

Before the discovery of America was 
made. 

Fit for either riding or drawing. 

Unless you see miracles, you will not 
believe. 

He is older than I. 

All but he attended. 

There has been a battle between the 
French on one side, and the Rus- 
sians and Austrians on the other. 

They quarrel amongst themselves. 

They have hid themselves under or 

in the grass. 
In a nation so civilized. 
Accused of robbing. 
First of many. 
There is no need of that. 
Averse to study. 
Free from all blame. 
This is different from what he told 

me. 
To dissent from. 
He was slain by the hand with a 

sword. 



94 SYNTAX. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

RULES. 

r 1. Conjunctions connect sentences and couple like moods of verbs and 
cases of nouns. The conjunction and, which has some affinity with the 
preposition with, sometimes connects words, as a man of wisdom and (or 
with) virtue is a perfect character, two and (or with) two are four ; he and I 
were schoolfellows, is of the same import as he and I were fellows at school, or 
he and I were at school together * 

9.. The connected members of a compound sentence, should generally re- 
semble each other in construction, especially where an ellipsis takes place 
The nominative to the verb should be repeated on every change of tense 
or when the sentence passes from affirmation to negation, or the contrary 

5. Conjunctions that imply doubt, contingency, supposition, or purpose, 
are commonly followed, (as the sense requires,) by the subjunctive mood of 
cither the first or second form. These conjunctions are whether, but, per- 
haps, though, unless, if, that, &c. 

4. Several conjunctions have appropriate correlatives, which ought not 
to be confounded or misapplied. These correlatives are found to be either 
pronouns, adverbs, or conjunctions. They are sometimes elliptical. 

Correlatives. Conjunctions, 

Same, such. As. 

Same. That (Rel. Prm.) 

As. As, so. 

So. As, that. 

Both. Arid, 

Whether, either, poetically or. Or. 

Not, never, neither, poetically nor. Nor. 

Other. Than. 

Rather, more, or any comparative Than, as, because. 

Though, although. Yet, nevertheless. 

As, preceding an adjective in the positive degree, requires another as to 
precede the following member of the sentence. When as is preceded by 
same or such, it stands in the place of the relative that. 

The correlatives both, either, neither, whether, may stand before two or 
more connected words or phrases, as neither profit, nor honour, nor pleasure 
should ever seduce us from the path of rectitude. 

Than is appropriately used after the comparative degree, and after other. 
Its use after any thing else is improper. 

$. Some conjunctions serve occasionally as adverbs, as accordingly, con- 
sequently, therefore, as, so, then, otherwise, since, &c. 

6. Some words are used indifferently as conjunctions or prepositions, as 
against, for, till, until, with, &c. To this class but, than, and without, for- 
merly belonged, but the two former are now conjunctions, and without is a 
preposition. The old construction, however> is still retained in one phrase, 
than whom. 

7. The conjunctions and, or, nor, if, that, as, yet are often elliptical. 



• Is it not as likely that and is a derivative of wand, or band, and with of withe, as that 
and. is derived from anad to add, and with of wyrthan to be, or of withan to join ? 



SYNTAX, 



95 



CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS, 

EXAMPLES. 



Improper. 

1. You and us will follow. 

She and him are very happy to- 
gether. 

Her brother and her went. 

He invited John and I. 

If he prefer virtue and pursues it. 

If thou bring thy gift to the al- 
tar and there reuiemberest. 

2. Men fearing God, and who hate 

covetousness. 

The parliament met and is pro- 
rogued. 

We are often fretting about ima- 
ginary evils, and overlook real 
blessings. 

He may live, but will never be 
strong.. 

He is not rich but respectable. 

One is as learned, or more so 
than the other. 

False friendship lasts as long, 
and no longer than prosperity 
lasts. 

By such as them. 

By so worthy a man as him. 

3. If we are rightly informed. 
Though he promises ever so 

fairly. 
See that he does it. 

4. He behaved with that gallantry 

as was expected. 
In the order as they lie. 

Such cries that pierced the heart. 

None was so blind who did not 
perceive. 

He is not as clever as his bro- 
ther. 

He should have been here as to- 
day. 

This I am the rather inclined to 
do, that it will serve. 

It is no more but his due. 

Nf> sooner was the cry of the 
infant heard but the old gen- 
tleman rushed into the room. 

Scarcely had the spirit of laws 
made its appearance than it 
was attacked. 

This donation was the more ac- 
ceptable, that it was given 
without solicitation. 
6. You suppose him younger than 
me. 

You suppose him younger than I. 



Proper. 
You and we will follow. 
She and he are very happy together. 

Her brother and she went. 

He invited John and me. 

If he prefer virtue, and pursue it. 

If thou bring thy gift to the altar, 
and there remember. 

Men fearing God, and hating covet- 
ousness. 

The parliament met, and was pro- 
rogued. 

We often fret about imaginary evils, 
and overlook real blessings. 

He may live, but he will never be 
strong. 

He is not rich, but he is respectable. 

One is as learned as the other, or 
more so. 

False friendship lasts as Jong as pros- 
perity lasts, and no longer. 

By such as they (are). 
By so worthy a man as he (is). 
If we be rightly informed. 
Though he promise ever so fairly. 

See that he do it. 

He behaved with that gallantry 

which was expected. 
In the order in which, or in order as, 

they lie. 
Such cries as pierced the heart. 
None was so blind as not to perceive. 

He is not so clever as his brother. 

He should have been here to-day. 

This I am the rather inclined to do, 
as it will serve. 

It is no more than his due. 

No sooner was the cry of the infant 
heard than the old gentleman 
rushed into the room. 

Scarcely had the spirit of laws made 
its appearance, when it was at- 
tacked. 

This donation was the more accep- 
table, as it was given without so- 
licitation. 

You suppose him younger than I 
(do.) 

You suppose him younger than (you 
.sfG±m&:. .^ 



96 SYNTAX. 



CONSTRUCTION OF INTERJECTIONS. 

RULES. 

1. Most interjections are construed as in the state absolute, as Alas f 
Heigh ho ! Hist ! Fie ! 

2- Those interjections which take a case after them, are generally fol- 
lowed by the nominative, and if this nominative be a common or proper 
name, it is construed as of the second person, as death, where is thy 
sting ! 

3. The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! are followed by the objective 
case of the fir*t person in the singular; but in the plural by the nomina- 
tive, as Ah me ! O unhappy we ! 

4. In some interjective phrases, the preposition to is understood before 
the objective, as well w (to) thee! Woe is (to) me ! 



EXAMPLES. 



Improper. Proper. 

2. O wretched thee ! O wretched thou ! 

O miserable man, what will be- U miserable man, what will become 

come of him ! of thee ! 

O self, how blind it is ! O self, how blind thou art ! 

3. Ah unhappy I ! Ah unhappy me ! 
Ah helpless us ! Ah helpless we ! 

4. Woe is he ! Woe is him ! 
Well is thou ! Well is thee ! 



Note. — It has beeu asserted by some, that Interjections do not constitute any part of language ; 
that although they may be found in dramatic compositions and romances, they are never to be 
met with in works of a graver and more scientific kind, as of law, philosophy, or mathematics. 
But it is to be remarked that Interjections are to be met with in the Bible, in. history, and in epic 
poetry, and in the mouths of the noble and of the learned, as well as in those of the vulgar 
and illiterate. 



97 



REMARKS ON THE STYLE OF PROSE 
COMPOSITIONS. 

STYLE denotes the quality of a literary composition as to 
the strength, elegance, and proportion of its parts. In prose 
compositions the style may be divided into historical, philo- 
sophical, rhetorical,* and common, each sort being suited to 
its own peculiar objects, and having its own peculiar proper- 
ties or Jaws. And it may be observed universally that elo- 
quence is founded on method, that is on comprehensive views, 
and a regular arrangement of the several parts. 

1. The historical style should be clear, simple, harmonious, 
and elegant; candid and impartial; neither too brief nor too 
diffuse; free from affected ornaments, and from affectations 
of wit and satire. Annals, memoirs, and travels, are a subordi- 
nate kind of history, of which it is sufficient if they record 
things with perspicuity and truth. Epitaphs and public 
inscriptions are amongst the shortest species of history. 
They should contain nothing but what is strictly true, and 
the words should be few and plain. Romance imitates 
history in respect of style, although in respect to the fable it 
belongs to poetry. 

2. The philosophical style belongs to mathematical, 
physical, and moral subjects. — In the mathematical style 
the utmost perspicuity and accuracy are necessary. The 
arrangement of propositions and arguments must be such as 
cannot be altered but for the worse; and all tropes, figures, 
and other ornaments are prohibited. — Physics, or the philo- 
sophy of bodies, so far as it is connected with geometry, 
ought also to be treated in the plainest words; but those 
physical inquiries which are not strictly mathematical, may 
admit ornaments of language, and should be made as enter- 
taining as possible. Perspicuity however and exact method 
should never be hurt for the sake of elegance. In moral 
disquisitions, founded on the careful observation of the human 
mind, and relating to human feelings, passions, and senti- 
ments, the phenomena of the mind should be illustrated by 
frequent references to history and common life, in order to 
fix the attention and create a due interest in the discourse, 
and to render the doctrines more intelligible. The various 
senses in which abstract terms have been used should be 
unfolded, and the particular sense explained in which an 
abstract term is used at any particular time ; as sophistry owes 
its origin to ill defined terms, and ambiguous expressions. 

3. The rhetorical style is that which is suited to popular 
ways, to orations, and sermons. — The popular essay has 



98 REMARKS ON THE 

flourished more in England than in any other country. It 
embraces topics that are moral, critical, or amusing. The 
style should be plain but elegant. As the essay is but a short 
composition, its matter should be close and dense. — Orations 
are either senatorial, judicial, or popular. Many requisites 
of knowledge, skill, prudence, extensive learning, and prac- 
tice in public speaking are necessary to form an accomplished 
orator. Demosthenes and Cicero have afforded the best 
models of oratory, and Cicero and Quinctilian have treated 
fully on the art. — Many treatises have been written on pulpit 
oratory, which need not be here particularised, and more 
celebrated sermons may perhaps be found in English than in 
any other language. 

4. The style of common prose is such as is suited to the 
written dialogue, to epistolary correspondence, and to com- 
mon conversation, and should have all possible ease and 
elegance. — Epistolary correspondence ought in plainness and 
simplicity to resemble common conversation. It should be 
free from all impropriety and ambiguity, and from every thing 
that looks like elaborate study. Yet the letter ought to be 
methodical when it contains several heads of discourse. The 
length of the letter and its style will depend greatly on the 
nature of the business to which it relates, on the rank and 
condition of the correspondents, and on the degree of intimacy 
subsisting between them. A letter of business can hardly be 
two short, provided it be intelligible, and every thing men- 
tioned in it that is expected. All forms and rules of good 
breeding should always be carefully maintained, according to 
the customs of well bred people. — Common conversation is 
the most simple kind of common prose. The style of com- 
mon conversation ought to be perfectly plain and clear. 
Inelegant expressions, and barbarous and vulgar idioms are to 
be avoided. Hard words, strong figures, and studied sen- 
tences are also unseemly. To promote the happiness of those 
with whom we converse, to comply with their innocent 
humours, and not to give way to rnoroseness and ill nature, 
are principles both of politeness and virtue. But to obtrude 
on others our own business and concerns, or to force on their 
attention things painful to their memory and feelings, argues 
a want of judgment and an unfeeling heart. It is also inde- 
cent and unfair to seek to engross the whole conversation, 
or to shew signs of listlessness and contempt when any 
person is speaking. 

Having briefly considered the four different kinds of style 
in prose compositions, we subjoin a few remarks on style in 
general. 

A good style in any kind of composition, where correct 
language is required, should be grammatical and harmonious, 



STYLE OF PROSE COMPOSITIONS. 99 

simple and perspicuous. The ability to make style gram- 
matical and harmonious is the work of education, but it is the 
effect of judgment and discretion to make style simple and 
perspicuous, it is also true that genius and education, like 
science and art, may and do powerfully assist each other. 

A grammatical style includes several properties, in like 
manner as grammar itself is divided into different parts. A 
grammatical style requires, in the first place, purity, that is 
that all the words be of sterling currency, that they be found 
in our best dictionaries, and warranted by the most respect- 
able authorities. Hence we are to exclude all foreign words 
and idioms, all obsolete and new coined words, all provincial 
and other low terms. In the next place, a grammatical style 
requires that the words chosen to express our meaning should 
do so exactly without defect or superfluity, and without any 
misrepresentation. Propriety in the choice of words is 
the first step towards making language natural and easy. In 
the third place, a grammatical style requires a strict adherence 
to all the rules of grammar in respect of orthography, etymo- 
logy, and syntax. All the words of a sentence should be so 
disposed that the reader or hearer may instantly perceive the 
meaning and connection. For this purpose relatives should 
be placed as near their antecedents as possible, and adverbs 
and all words that limit or ascertain the signification of 
other words should stand contiguous to the words to which 
they belong. Inexperienced writers are apt to crowd their 
sentences with too much meaning, and to extend them to too 
great a length. This they should study to avoid, by reducing 
complex sentences or propositions into ethers shorter and 
more simple, and always beginning with that whieii is easiest 
and most obvious or comprehensive, and going on gradually 
to what is more difficult, or less general. 

A harmonious style is agreeable to the ear and easy to be 
articulated. Several of the rules of prosody are applicable 
to it. The cadences should be varied by making the intervals 
between the pauses sometimes longer and sometimes shorter; 
that is by an easy intermixture or' long and short sentences, 
or long and short members of sentences when the sentences 
are of considerable length. The construction or order of the 
words should also be varied to suit the melody, so that ac- 
cented and unaccented syllables may often succeed each 
other alternately, and that too many harsh consonants may 
not meet each other, nor too many vowels come together in 
the same place. For it generally happens that the same 
meaning may be expressed in several different ways, more or 
less agreeable to the ear. But when it appears that there is only 
one method of readily and properly expressing our thoughts, 
we must neither sacrifice sense to sound, nor yet strive with 

o»2 



100 REMARKS ON THE STYLE, &c. 

any shew of art or labour to vary the sentence, as affectation 
and impropriety of style are much greater faults than harsh- 
ness of sound. 

By a simple style is meant a neat, easy, and natural method 
of explaining any subject fully and clearly. It excludes every 
thing that is affected, superfluous, indefinite, or obscure; hut 
admits every grace, which, without encumbering a sentiment, 
does really enforce and embellish it. It assists the judgement 
of the hearer, and, by forming and strengthening the judge- 
ment, it assists the memory. It is manifestly inconsistent with 
verbosity as well as excessive brevity, as the judgement is 
perverted by laying either too much stress on insignificant 
topics, or too little on those of importance. It bears a great 
likeness to scientific arrangement formed secretly and un- 
ostentatiously, more especially to that kind of arrangement 
which is termed synthetical. 

By a perspicuous style is meant a regular and orderly distri- 
bution of the parts of a discourse, so as not to harrass the at- 
tention, or cloud the understanding of the hearer. That which 
illustrates must be clearer in itself than that which is illustrated. 
The demonstration should be less obscure than the proposition 
to be demonstrated. Allusions to customs, sentiments, and 
maxims that are but little known, and quotations from ancient 
or foreign authors in a language not generally understood, as 
well as the use of words which have no reputable authority, 
are all hurtful to perspicuity. The term perspicuity has also 
been applied to the right ordering of the words of a simple 
sentence, and to the regular distribution of the parts of a 
compound sentence — but it would perhaps be better to 
restrict the meaning to one sense. As simplicity of style is 
a-kin to composition or synthesis, so perspicuity has an 
affinity to resolution or analysis. 



101 



OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 

TRUTH is the primary object of all speech and writing; 
yet there are certain allowable deviations from truth which 
have by the common consent of mankind in all ages obtained 
currency without being stigmatized as falsehoods. These 
have been denominated tropes and figures. The holy scrip- 
tures themselves abound with figurative language, and religi- 
ous sects have sprung up and multiplied from uncertainties as 
to what texts were to be understood literally and what were 
to be taken as figures. 

A Trope is the name of one thing implied emphatically to 
express the name of another thing. Tropes affect single 
words. 

The primary Tropes are commonly reckoned four, Meta- 
phor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Irony ; and the secondary 
may be comprehended under the heads of Antonomasia, Koin- 
onosis, Litotes, Catachresis, and Hyperbole. 

I. A Metaphor (or Transition) is the name of one thing 
applied to another on account of a supposed resemblance 
between the two things. It is a similitude expressed in one 
word. It may be founded on several comparisons, as 

1. On comparing the qualities of a man with those of a 

beast, as when we call a crafty man a fox, or a stupid 
man an ass. 

2. On comparing a man with an inanimate thing, as when 

Homer calls Ajax the bulwark of the Greeks. 

3. On comparing one inanimate thing with another, as 

when we say clouds of dust, pillars of fire. 

4. On comparing inanimate things with things having life, 

as when Virgil calls a plentiful crop a joyful harvest. 

5. On comparing mental with bodily qualities, as when we 

say a solid judgement, a fiery temper, fyc. 
II. Metonymy changes the names of things, by putting the 
adjunct or quality for the whole subject, the effect for the 
cause, the cause for the effect, the matter ifcr the manner, or 
the form for the matter, thus, 

1. The adjunct for the simple, as clad in purple, i. e. purple 

garments 
3. The effect for the cause, as by the sweat of the brow, i. e. 
by labour. 

3. The cause for the effect, or the instrument or maker for 

the thing made, as I read Cicero, that is the writings 
of Cicero; I know his hand, meaning his hand writing* 

4. The matter for the form, or rather for the form and 

matter united, as I have no silver, meaning silver coin* 



102 OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 

5. The form for the matter, or thing signified for the sign, 
as when we say, pointing to a picture, that is Apollo 
and the Muses. 

III. Synecdoche puts the name of the whole for that of a 
part, or the converse, thus, 

1. The genus for the species, as animal instead of man. 

2. The species for the genus, as he works for his bread, that 

is, for his living. 

3. The name of the whole for that of one of its parts, as in 

epitaphs, here lies such a man, where the body only is 
meant. 

4. The name of one of the parts for that of the whole, as 

this town contains 1500 souls, meaning persons. 

5. Part of a system for the whole system, as / see a sail, 

meaning a ship at sea. 

6. A whole system instead of one of its parts, as when 

ancient authors say the whole world instead of the 
Roman Empire. 

IV. Irony conveys a meaning exactly opposite to what we 
express, which meaning is implied by the tone or manner of 
expression. Thus when with a peculiar look and accent we 
say, he is a wise man indeed, we ironically affirm he is not 
wise. 

V. Antonomasia is a species of Synecdoche, which puts a 
common noun for a proper name, or the converse. Thus 
Aristotle calls Homer, The Poet; a great orator is sometimes 
called a Demosthenes, and a great warrior an Alexander. 

VI. Koinonosis or Communication uses the plural instead 
of the singular number, as when an author assumes his 
hearers or readers into a discourse, as if they were writing or 
speaking along with him, and says we instead of /. 

VII. Litotes, or Extenuation, is a species of Irony and 
Synecdoche, and expresses less than is meant. Thus it may 
be said, I cannot commend you, when the real meaning is 
I greatly blame you. 

VIII. Euphemism disguises a disagreeable idea by an 
agreeable name, as when death is called a falling asleep. 
This is a sort of Metaphor, on account of the likeness of the 
two cases. 

IX. Catachresis seems to confound the nature of things, as 
in the terms a silver candlestick, a glass inkhorn, to feel a smell, 
but this last is not truly English. When we call the young of 
beasts, their sows and daughters; or the instinctive economy 
of bees, their government; we use this trope. For in proper 
language, sons and daughters, and government, belong only 
to rational beings. 

X. Hyperbole represents a thing as much greater or much 
less than it really is. 



OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 103 

1. Auxesis, or Exaggeration, makes things greater than 

they really are, as when we call a tall man a giant, 

2. Meiosis, or Diminution, makes things less than they 

really are, as when we say of a lean man, that he is 
a mere shadow, or nothing but skin and bone. 



A Figure is a phrase, or a sentence, or even a con- 
tinuation of sentences, used in a sense different from the 
original and proper sense, yet so as not to occasion obscurity, 
but on the contrary give force and animation to what is said. 
Figures therefore affect phrases and sentences, as Tropes 
do single words. 

A few of the more important figures are as follows. 

An Allegory is constituted by continuing a metaphor until 
it becomes a description, the description itself being carried 
on agreeably both to the literal and figurative sense of the 
words. Allegories are sometimes very short and sometimes 
they fill a volume or more. , 

Hyperbole is both a Figure and a Trope. The Trope 
becomes a figure when it is extended into a description. 
When an angry man exaggerates the injury he has just 
received, and the vengeance he is going to inflict, he employs 
this figure. A scornful man speaking of that which he 
despises adopts the diminishing hyperbole, which is also used 
by a brave man recounting the dangers he has undergone, 
and by every man of sense when obliged to speak of his own 
merit. 

Prosopopeia or Personification supposes things and ideas 
to be active and sentient beings. Thus we say, the sea rages, 
the storm threatens, the ground is thirsty, the hills and trees 
break forth into singing, the floods clap their hands, the sun 
rejoices to run his race, Sec. And thus too we speak of frown- 
ing disdain, pale fear, blushing shame, meek eyed contentment, 
blind fortune, and of virtue receiving her own reward. Time 
is personified into an old man with an hour glass and a scythe, 
and death is represented under the appearance of a walking 
skeleton with a dart in its hand, and thus a variety of allego- 
rical persons is formed, when in strict language it is things 
only or ideas that are spoken of. 

Apostrophe is a sudden change in our discourse, whereby, 
without giving previous notice, we address ourselves to a 



104 OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 

person or thing different from that to which we were address- 
ing ourselves before, under the excitement of some strong 
passion or emotion, as admiration, sorrow, love, indigna- 
tion, &c. 

Simile, similitude or comparison is commonly accounted a 
figure of speech, but rather improperly, as in reality it 
changes nothing It merely states that one thing is like 
another. A metaphor, allegory, or hyperbole, being preceded 
by as, or some such word, makes a simile. 

Ecphonesis or Exclamation begins with an Interjection, 
and terminates with an ardent wish, or some strong expres- 
sion of joy or sorrow. O death, where is thy sting! grave, 
where is thy victory! This figure is a species of Apostrophe. 

Erotesis or Interogation puts an undeniable proposition or 
truth into the form of a doubt, by asking a question, and it 
thereby strengthens the affirmation, or renders it more empha- 
tical. Hast thou an arm like God? Or canst thou thunder 
with a voice like him ? 

Vision substitutes present for future time, and takes contin- 
gent circumstances for certainties. It affects to realize certain 
anticipated evils, or to substantiate some certain good conse- 
quences, in order to heighten an accusation, or defend a 
cause Visions are gloomy or cheerful, malevolent or kind, 
according to the disposition of the party who forms them, or 
according to the character of the party to whom they relate. 
They may promote either peace or dissention. But it is not 
right to create new quarrels, or to aggravate old ones on 
account of visionary faults, nor to recommend any one too 
highly for virtues df which the proof* are not well known. 
We should make allowances for others as for ourselves. 

Amplification enlarges the parts of a discourse by substi- 
tuting for general terms an enumeration or detailed account of 
the several heads contained under those terms; by & repetition 
ot particulars already mentioned; by repeating the same 
phrases at. the beginning or end of several contiguous short 
sentences or members of a sentence: by antitheses or contrast- 
ed circumstances; and by several other means. 

Climax is a species of amplification, in which the expres- 
sion ending the first member of a sentence is repeated at the 
beginning of the second member; the expression ending the 
sect nd member begins the third, and so on; the discourse 
gradually rising, (or sometimes falling,) at the same time* 



OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 105 

Thus, There is no enjoyment of property without government; 
no government without a magistrate; no magistrate without 
obedience ; and no obedience where every one acts as he pleases. 
Or thus, add to your faith virtue; and to virtue, knowledge; 
and to knowledge, temperance; and to temperance, patience; 
and to patience, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; 
and to brotherly kindness, charity. 



CAUTIONS RESPECTING THE USE CF FIGURATIVE 
LANGUAGE. 

1 . Figurative language is more common in poetry than in 
prose, as in poetry the affections of the mind have more play, 
and harmony of language is more studied, than in prose*. 

2. Too much of figurative language is at all times worse 
than too little, as when there appears to be a want of sincerity 
and truth, and an anxious pursuit of vain show and embellish- 
ment, the mind of the reader or hearer naturally feels distrust- 
ful and disappointed in his author. 

3. Figurative language is seasonable when we do not 
choose to speak our minds clearly, or when there appears to be 
no other way of speaking them more clearly. It is favourable 
both to dignity and to conciseness of expression, when judi- 
ciously applied. 

4. Passions that agitate or elevate the mind delight in 
Tropes and Figures, except Similes — and on the other hand, 
Passions that depress the mind, as grief, sorrow, repentance, 
humility, use only plain and unadorned language. It is 
proper that the language of any passion should be agreeable 
to the nature of that passion. 

5. When Tropes or Figures are used, for ornament or illus- 
tration, they should be natural and apposite, and easy to be 
understood, and should seem to grow, as it were, out of the 
very subject of the discourse. But care is at the same time 
to be taken not to confound the nature of the thing illustrated 
with the illustration, nor to pursue the points of comparison 
or likeness too minutely. Far fetched resemblances, incon- 
gruous descriptions, and the hunting down of figures by mul- 
tiplied comparisons, are proofs of a mind seeking assistance 
from wit, when nature and truth are gone. 



* Propositions may be figuratively true when they are contrary to human 
reason and experience. — To deny a proposition that is not strictly or literally 
true, in order to evade some duty, or refute some accusation, is at best only a 
partial defence, and by itself a weak subterfuge. 



106 



REMARKS ON THE STYLE OF POETRY. 

THE chief object of Poetry is to please, which it does in 
several ways, as by instruction, by elegant and harmonious 
language, whether proper or figurative, by exhibiting great 
and goad characters in the fairest view, and making their 
noble or virtuous designs ultimately succeed, and by painting 
vicious characters in the darkest and most odious colours, 
and disappointing all their criminal projects and purposes. 

Poetry or Fable is the work of the Imagination, and it is 
analogous to History, which is the work of Memory. It ex- 
hibits things not as they really are but as they might be sup- 
posed to be according to probability. 

The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, 

Doth glance from hcav'n to earth, from earth to heav'n, 

And, as imagination bodies forth 

The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen 

Turns them to shape, and gives to airy nothing 

A local habitation and a name. 

Shakespear. 

Fables, whether they be composed in prose or verse, are 
equally poetical; but verse is the proper language of poetry. 

Of prose fables, or poetical prose, there are four sorts, viz. 

I. The Historical Allegory, as Barclay's Argents, or Arbuth- 
not's John Bull. 

II. The religious, Moral, or Political Allegory, as Bunyan's 
Pilgrim's Progress, Swift's Tale oj a Tub, and Gulliver s 
Travels. 

III. and IV. Modern Romances serious and comic, as those 
of Fielding, Smollett, and others, an unprofitable and a danger- 
ous kind of reading, which began soon after the publication 
of Don Quixotte in 1604, and which has greatly supplanted 
reading of a better sort. 

The style of romance or prose fable imitates the style of 
history, as has already been observed. 

Of Poetry in verse there are seven sorts, viz. 

I. The Epic, Heroic, or Narrative Poem, as Homer's Iliad, 
Virgil's Mneid, Milton's Paradise Lost. 



STYLE OF POETRY. 107 

H. Dramatic Poetry, as the Plays of Shakespear, Otway, 
Foote, Garrick, &c. 

III. Lyric Poetry, which is, or may be accompanied with 
music, as the Odes of Pindar, AnaCreon, Horace, Milton, 
Dryden, Gray, &c. also Songs, and Pastoral and Epic Ballads. 

IV. Elegiac Poetry, expressive of grief, tenderness, affection, 
love, moral sentiments, and admonitions, of which we have 
examples in Ovid, Pope, Gray, &c. 

V. Didactic Poetry, as the Fables of iEsop, Phaedrus, and 
Gay. The Satires of Horace, Juvenal, Persius, Pope, Young, 
Boileau, &c. — Virgil's Georgics, Pope's Essay on Man, 
Akenside's Pleasures of Imagination, Armstrong's Art of 
preserving Health, &c. 

VI. Descriptive Poetry, which is employed chiefly in 
describing the appearances of external nature, is to be found 
less or more in every good poem. Thomson's Seasons is an 
excellent specimen. 

VIL Epigrammatic Poetrv is the shortest species of poetical 
composition. The Epigram is written on occasions not very 
important, and is finished with an unexpected turn of wit. 
There are thousands of them in all languages, but most of 
them worthless. 

Each of these primary kinds of poetry comprehends several 
subordinate species, whcih take rank according as the poem is 
long or short, serious or comic, probable or improbable, &c . 

Of English versification there are three principal sorts, 
namely, Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapestic, with their varie- 
ties. Iambics lay the syllabic emphasis on the even, Trochaic 
on the odd syllables. Anapestics on every third syllable. 
Deviations from this rule are accounted varieties. — Iambics 
and Trochaics have a natural affinity with Common Time in 
music, and Anapestics with Triple Time — but it will appear 
hereafter that these affinities may be superseded. — Iambic 
measure is the most easy, the most natural, and the 
most dignified kind of English versification. It is there- 
fore the most proper to be employed, as it is, in long 
poems; and most fit to be used/ as it very commonly 
is, in all the seven kinds of poetry that have been 
enumerated. Trochaic and Anapestic measures, especially 
the latter, are more difficult and less natural than Iambic 
measure, and they are therefore less fit for long poems. 

?2 



10S REMARKS ON THE 

Besides this, Trochaics are generally esteemed to be devoid 
of dignity, so that their use is limited to light and short com- 
positions, as ballads and songs. It may farther be remarked 
that the Iambic movement is in general rather slow, the 
Trochaic quicker, and the Anapestic the most quick. 

I. Iambic verses consist of from one to seven feet, and they 
may all take an additional short syllable at the close of the 
verse. 

1. The shortest form of the English Iambic measure 
consists of one Iambus, with an additional short sylla- 
ble; as, 

Disdaining, 
Complaining, 
Consenting, 
Repenting. 

We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met 
with in stanzas. The example is taken from a song in 
the Mask of Comus. 

2. The second form of our Iambic measure is also too 
short to be continued through any great number of 
lines; though in the following example it has a very 
good effect. It consists of two Iambuses. 

With ravish'd ears 
The monarch hears, 
Assumes the God, 
Affects to nod. 

This measure is often used in the names of ships, as 
The William Pitt, The Charles Grant; and it would 
seem that Iambics are most proper for inscriptive 
names. 

With an additional short syllable. 

Upon a mountain, 
Beside a fountain. 

5. The third form consists of three Iambuses. 

No war, or battle's sound 
Was heard the world around. 



or with an additional short syllable, 

Ye lays no longer languish, 

For nought can cure my anguish. 



STYLE OF POETRY. 109 

The name of the ship The Jane Duchess of Gordon 
belongs to this measure, although the second foot is a 
Trochee. 

4. The fourth form is made up of four Iambuses, with 
sometimes an additional short syllable, which gives a 
pleasing variety. 

« _ _ 

Or whether, as some sages sing 

The frolic wind that breathes the spring, 

Young Zephyr with Aurora playing, &c. 

This measure is used in short poems, as fables, tales, 
odes, Sec. With an additional long syllable, it is the 
same with the Iambic Dimeter of the antients. 

5. The fifth form, consisting of five Iambusses, is used 
in Epic and Didactic Poetry, and in Tragedy. 

w 

A wit's a feather, and a chiefs a rod, 
An honest man's the noblest work of God. 

With an additional short syllable, this measure be- 
comes nearly the same with that of the modem Italian 
heroic measure. But in English this addition is less 
common now than it was formerly, especially in epic 
and didactic poetry. 

'Tis heav'n itself that points out an hereafter. 

(3. The sixth form, consisting of six Iambuses, and called 
Alexandrines for some reason neither certain nor impor- 
tant, is but rarely used. It sometimes concludes a 
heroic stanza, and sometimes the stanzas of an ode. 
This measure is the same with the pure Iambic Tri- 
meter of the Greeks and Romans. 

For thou art but of dust, be" hurablS and be wise. 

or with an additional short syllable, 

With freedom by my side and soft eyed melanci 

7. The seventh form has seven Iambics, but verses or 
kind are now commonly broken into two lines, the 
former containing eight and the latter six syllables. 
This measure is very popular and pleasing to the ear. 
Lyric poems and hymns are often composed in it. 

The Lord descended from above, And bow'd the heaven* high. 



no REMARKS ON THE 

If. Trochaic verses contain from one to seven feet, and 
most of them may take an additional long syllable at the 
close. 

1. The first species of Trochaic verse, consisting only of 
one foot, always takes the additional long syllable, as 

In amaze 
Lost I gaze. 

The example is taken from a burlesque poem, called 
a Lilliputian Ode, by Swift. 

2. The second species has two Trochees, as 

On the mountain, 
By a fountain. 

or two feet with an additional long syllable, as 

In the days of old, 
Stories plainly told, 
Lovers felt annoy. 

These lines are from an old ballad. The measure is 
very uncommon. 

3. The third species has three Trochees, as 

When the seas were roaring, 
Phillis lay deploring. 

Verses of three Trochees and an additional long sylla- 
ble, are sometimes called Anacreontic, as 

By the streams that ever flow, 
By the fragrant winds that blow. 

4. The fourth species is made of four Trochees, as 

Days of ease and nights of pleasure. 

or with an additional long syllable, 

Idle, after dinner, in his chair 
Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 

5. The fifth species, consisting of five Trochees, runs 
thus, 

All th^t walk on foot, or ride in chari6ts, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 



STYLE OF POETRY. ill 

or with an additional long syllable, 

Pleasant was thS morning, and the month was May, 
Colin went to^London in his best array. 

It may be doubted whether any poems of this measure 
are to be found in English, but some Scotch ballads 
are composed in it. 

6. The sixth species, consisting of six Trochees, does 
not admit of an additional long syllable, as 

On a mountain stretch'd, beneath a hoarj^ wiH6w, 
Lay a shepherd swain, arid view'd the rolling billow. 

7. The seventh species has seven Trochees, but the verse 
is usually broken into two lines, the former containing 
four and the latter three feet, thus, 

As near Portdbell6 lying, On thS gently swelling flood, 

At midnight, with streamers flying, Our triumphant navy rode. 

This example is taken from one of the finest ballads 
in the English language. The first foot happens to be 
an Iambus instead of a Trochee, an allowable and 
common variety ; and the verse contains an additional 
long syllable. Specimens of Trochaic versification 
may be found in the Greek and Roman poets. 

III. Anapestic verses contain from one to five feet, and 
they take occasionally a short syllable at the close. 

1. The shortest Anapestic measure must be a single 
Anapest, as 

Btlt in vain 
They complain. 

but this measure is ambiguous ; for by laying the em- 
phasis on the first and third syllables, we make it 
Trochaic. 

2. The second species has two Anapests, as 

But his courage gan fail, 
For no arts could avail. 



112 REMARKS ON THE 

3. The third has three Anapests, as 

With her mien she" Enamours thfe brave, 
With her wit she engages the free, 
With her modesty pleases the grave; 
She is every way pleasing to rae. 

This is a delightful measure, and it is much used in 
pastoral songs. Shenstone's Ballad in four parts, from 
which this example is quoted, is an exquisite specimen. 
So is the Scotch ballad of Tweedside, and Rowe's 
Despairing beside a clear stream ; which last is per- 
haps the finest Jove song in the world. This measure 
is also adapted to burlesque, as appears from the 
humorous ballad called The tippling Philosophers, which 
begins thus, 

Diogenes surly and proud. 

and here we may observe that Anapestic verses com- 
monly take an Iambus for the first foot. 
With an additional short syllable the verse runs thus, 

Says my UnclS, I pray you, discover * 
Why you pine and you whine like a loveF. 

4. .The fourth species has four Anapests, as 

At the close of th£ day whgn the 1 hamlgt is still. 

This measure resembles that of the French heroic verse. 
It admits a short syllable at the end, as 

On thg cold cheek of death smiles and rosSs are blending. 

and sometimes also between the second and third foot. 

u 

In th& morning when sobeV, in tb& evening wh£n mellow. 

5. The fifth species consists of five Anapests: but verses 
of this kind are broken into two lines, the former con- 
taining three and the latter two feet, as in the witty 
ballad of Molly Mog f written by Gay, and often imi- 
tated. 

IV. In some Odes we find mixed metres employed, which 



• STYLE OF POETRY. 1 13 

has an agreeable effect, as in the Allegro and Penseroso of 
Milton. 

Iambic Btit come, thou goddess, fair and free, 

In heaven ycleped Euphrosyne, 

Trochaic Come and trip it as you go, 

On the light fantastic toe. 

Poetic Licence signifies an allowable, because slight, devia- 
tion from that correctness of style which is more easily main- 
tained in prose than in verse; a deviation from the strict rules 
of grammar, harmony, simplicity, and perspicuity formerly 
recommended. 

Thus, the orthography and prosody of syllables may some- 
times be altered by contracting or lengthening — the etymo- 
logy and syntax of words may sometimes be vitiated — the 
purity of metres may be affected by the admission of other 
feet, and rhymes may not always perfectly tally — the sim- 
plicity of style may be affected by multiplied epithets, cir- 
cumlocutions, and tautologies — and the admission of anti- 
quated, new coined, and other uncommon words, domestic 
or foreign, may affect perspicuity. To which may be added 
the free use of tropes and figures, as also of words commonly 
termed synonimous. 

But the Poets' Licence does not terminate in words and 
syllables. They affect to give laws to mankind ; but those 
laws are favourable to virtue and liberty in good poems, and 
to licentiousness and ribaldry in bad ones. It is certain that 
the Druids preserved the laws and history of their country in 
poetic numbers ; and perhaps it is not too much to consider 
Ossian's Poems as a specimen of their skill in the poetic art. 

Tn Epic Poetry and Tragedy, the verses may either rhyme 
or not, although commonly in Epic Poetry they do, and in 
Tragedy they do not rhyme. All other verses require the 
embellishment of rhyme. 

u With thee conversing, I forget all time ; 
All seasons and their change, all please alike ; 
Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet, 
With charm of earliest birds; pleasant the sun, 
When first on this delightful land he spreads 
His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, 
Glistering with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth 
After soft showers; and sweet the coming on 
Of grateful evening mild, the silent night 
With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon, 
And these the gems of heaven, her starry train ; 
But neither breath of morn, when it ascends 
With charm of earliest birds, nor rising sun 
o 



114 REMARKS, Sfc. 

On this delightful land nor herb, fruit, flov/r, 
Nor grateful evening mild, nor silent night, 
With this her solemn bird, nor walk by moon, 
Or glittering star-light, without thee is sweet." 

Milton. 

" But O, my muse, what numbers wilt thou find, 
To sing the furious troops in battle join'd. 
Methinks I hear the drum's tumultuous sound, 
The victor's shouts and dying groans confound, 
The dreadful burst of cannon rend the skies, 
And all the thunder of the battle rise. 
'Twas then great Marlbro's mighty soul was prov'd 
That in the shock of charging hosts unmov'd, 
Amidst confusion, horror and despair, 
Examin'd all the dreadful scenes of war : 
In peaceful thought the field of death survey'd, 
To fainting squadrons sent a timely aid, 
Inspired repuls'd battalions to engage, 
And taught the doubtful battle where to rage. 
So when an angel, by divine command, 
With rising tempests shakes a guilty land, 
Such as of late o'er pale Britannia past, 
Calm and serene he drives the furious blast, 
And, pleas'd the Almighty's orders to perform, 
Rides in the whirlwind, and directs the storm." 

Addison. 

" O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers ! 
Whence are thy beams, O sun ! thy everlasting light ? Thou comest 
forth, in thy awful beauty, and the stars hide themselves iu the sky ; 
the moon, cold and pale, sinks in the western wave. But thou thyself 
movest alone : who can be a companion of thy course ? The oaks of 
the mountains fall ; the mountains themselves decay with years ; the 
ocean shrinks and grows again : the moon herself is lost in heaven; but 
thou art for ever the same ; rejoicing in the brightness of thy course ! 
When the world is dark with tempests; when thunder rolls, and 
lightning flies; thou lookest in thy beauty from the clouds, and 
laughest at the storm. But to Ossian thou lookest in vain ; for he 
beholds thy beams no more; whether thy yellow hair flows on the 
eastern clouds, or thou tremblest at the gates of the west. But thou 
art perhaps like me, for a season, and thy years will have an end." 

Ossian. 



115 



PROSODY. 

1. DEFINITIONS. 

I. A Syllable was formerly defined (in Orthography) as 
any one complete sound. It may now (in Prosody) be de- 
fined as the least part of a foot. 

1. A long syllable is pronounced slowly, as move, slow. 

2. A shon syllable is pronounced quickly, as love, ten. 

3. An emphatic syllable bears a peculiar stress of voice, as 

abide, longer. 

4. An unemphatic syllable has little or no stress of voice, 

as the. 

II. Quantity properly means the distinction of syllables 
into long and short; but it is commonly used to distinguish 
syllables into emphatic and unemphatic, the former being 
denominated long, and the latter short. 

III. Rythm is that disposition of syllables which constitutes 
feet or verse. Rythm is produced two ways; first, by a regular 
intermixture of long and short syllables; or secondly, of em- 
phatic and unemphatic syllables. 

IV. A foot is the least part of a verse, consisting of either 
two or three syllables. 

1. An Iambus is a foot of two syllables, the first short 
and the second long, as tiwakc, &rise, biff ore, behind. 

2. A Trochee is a foot of two syllables, the first long, 
the second short, as gently ; , sof tip, father, mother. 

3. A Pyrrhic, consists of two short syllables, as from it. 

4. A Spondee consists of two long syllables, as leap- 
year, amen. 

5. An Anapest is a foot of three syllables, the two first 
short, the last long, as disapprove, incorrect, supersede. 

6. A Dactyl is a foot of three syllables, the first long, 
the two last short, asjlatt^rp, iiq&orice, verdigris* 

7. An Amphibrach has a long syllable in the middle, 
and a short syllable at the beghming and end, as 
majestic, consumption. 

8. A Tribrach consists of three short syllables, as 
PMri&e, gratifp, Birmingham. 

£2 



126 PROSODY. 

V. Verse is a rythmical arrangement of a certain number 
of syllables, agreeable to the ear, and to the secondary senses. 

A Hemistich is the half of a verse. 
A Distich is a couple of verses. 

1. Iambic verses consist principally of Iambuses. 

2. Trochaic verses are composed chiefly of Trochees. 

3. Anapestic verses are made up of Anapests, or nearly 
so. 

4. Dactylic verses, which are very rare, are composed 
of Dactyls. 

VI. Rhyme is a similarity of termination in two or more 
adjacent verses, which may be single, as name, fame; double, 
as measures, pleasures ; or triple, as furious, curious. 



1. A Couplet is two verses that rhyme. 

2. A Triplet is three verses that rhyme, 



2 

VII. Metre denotes the sort of verse, and the number of 
feet, appertaining to the lines of a poem. 

1. Heroics are verses containing five Iambuses, which 
are peculiarly used in narrative and dramatic poetry, 
but very seldom in lyrics. 

2. Blank verse is the same as Heroics without rhyme. 

3. Lyrics are verses which are or may be accompanied 
with music, and they generally contain six or eight 
syllables. 

4. Common Metre denotes Lyric verses adapted to 
Common Time in music. 

5. Triple Metre or Time denotes Lyric verses adapted 
to Triple Time. 

6. A Stanza, Staff, or Stave, is a sort of poetical sen- 
tence, containing all the varieties of metre and rhyme 
that are to be met with in the same poem. A long 
stanza, however, contains several sentences, and 
resembles a prose paragraph. 

VIIL Scanning is the art of measuring verses by feet. 

IX. Melody denotes in music an agreeable succession of 
sounds from a single voice or instrument.— In versification it 
denotes rythm and sweetness, that is, that the emphatic and 
unemphatic syllables are regularly disposed, and may be easily 
articulated, without harshness. 

X. Harmony in music denotes an agreeable combination of 



RULES OF VERSIFICATION. 117 

sounds from various voices or instruments. — In poetry it 
denotes that the words are so aptly chosen, and so well 
arranged, that the sound is as it were an echo to the sense. 
Alliteration has some effect in producing harmony of verse by 
iimtating sounds of different kinds, as the hissing of serpents 
by words abounding with the letter s\ the snarling of dogs or 
cynics by words abounding with the letter r; the noise of 
drums or of thunder and crashing of arms by words denoting 
din and tumult, &c. Cassural pauses likewise promote har- 
mony, by dividing one or more verses into similar cadences, 
that are at once grammatical, metrical, and sententious. 

Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong without rage, without o'erflo wing full. 

Denham. 



RULES OF VERSIFICATION. 

1. Verses may be iong or short within moderate limits, the 
shortest verse containing not less than three, and the longest 
not more than fifteen syllables. 

2. Verses of less than six or more than ten syllables, occur 
only in stanzas. Short verses should excel in point and neat- 
ness, long ones in ease and dignity. 

3. Verses may be Iambic, Trochaic, or Anapestic. 

4. Iambic measures are the most natural, because they 
resemble most of the cadences of common conversation. 
They are suitable to all subjects, whether grave or gay, and 
may be used in all poems, whether long or short. 

5. Iambic verses of ten syllables or five feet, usually called 
Heroics, are peculiarly appropriated to Epic, Didactic, and 
Descriptive Poetry, and also to Tragedy. 

6. Lyric verses, consisting generally of six or eight sylla- 
bles, may be composed of Iambics, Trochees, or Anapests. 

7. Trochaic and Anapestic measures, being less familiar to 
the ear, are less natural than Iambics. And on account of the 
superior difficulty of the versification, they are less fit for long 
compositions. Anapestic metre is elegant and pleasing, and 
suits any subject, whether it be serious or gay; but Trochaics 
are thought to have less ®f dignity,, and are therefore em* 
ployed only in light compositions, as ballads and songs. 



118 RULES OF VERSIFICATION. 

8. Iambic feet are commonly considered as slow, and Tro- 
chaic as quick ; however true this may be in general, it is not 
strictly and universally so. Iambics may abound with em- 
phatic short syllables, and Trochaics with unemphatic long 
ones ; and when these circumstances occur, the Iambics be- 
come quick and lively, and the Trochaics slow and grave. 

9. As in music there are four crotchets to a bar in com- 
mon time, and three crotchets to a bar in triple time, so in 
lyrics the dissyllabic rythms are supposed to accord with 
common time, and the trisyllabic rythms with triple time. 
Hence it is said that Iambic and Trochaic metres naturally 
correspond with common time, and Anapestic metres with triple 
time in music. This is true, so far as asserted ; yet it is not. 
the whole truth. Anapestic measures may be adapted to 
common time either by retrenching a short syllable at the 
beginning, or adding a short syllable at the close, if the verse 
consists originally of nine syllables. And again, Iambic and 
Trochaic verses will accord with triple time, when they con- 
sist of six or twelve syllables, or of four feet with an additional 
syllable at the close. Besides these, there are other methods 
of accordance, as by occasionally making two crotchets pass 
to one syllable, or two syllables to one crotchet, methods 
which it does not properly belong to this place to consider 
more minutely. It is also worthy of remark, that metre or 
verse is not essential to words set to music, as prose sentences 
of different lengths may be sung to the same air and time. 
There should, however, be some reasonable proportion be- 
tween the length of the tune and the number of words it is 
set to. This rule is too often transgressed, as in the cele- 
brated airs of Non nobis, Domine, and Duke domum, and even 
in Handel's Messiah, if we may be allowed to judge and speak 
freely. How much better is the national song of God save the 
King, than the bare repetition of the words, " God save the 
King, 1 ' set to the same or any other tune ? We also affirm 
that it is a species of bad taste to carry a mean, paltry word 
or termination, with perhaps twelve or sixteen demisemiqua- 
vers annexed to it, through all the notes of the gamut. And 
it is equally faulty and improper to place words of weight and 
moment in situations where their importance is hid or ob- 
scured. — When music and poetry act together, it is their 
business not to counteract or obstruct each other, but mutually 
to illustrate and adorn the subject to which they relate. Good 
singers are careful to pronounce their words with fulness and 
precision, that the whole of what is sung may be understood. 
A sharp and energetic way of uttering the consonants greatly 
promotes clearness of delivery. 



RULES OF VERSIFICATION. 119 

10. Rhyme is necessary in all sorts of Poetry, except Epic 
Poetry and Tragedy. In the former it is always agreeable, 
but in the latter it is scarcely tolerable. The Psalms are so 
majestic and sublime in the literal translation that all attempts 
to do them justice in metre and rhyme have failed of success. 

11. Single Rhymes must always be emphatic. The words 
cadence and prudence do not rhyme, because the termination 
dence is not emphatic. But in French, vhere syllabic em- 
phasis is unknown, these same words prudence and cadence 
would rhyme. And as French rhymes are more easily found 
than English, this may be one reason why rhyme is indispen- 
sible in all kinds of French versification: and another reason 
probably is, that with the few inflexions and limited construc- 
tion or position of words in the French language, it cannot, 
like the Greek and Latin languages, command a sufficient 
intermixture of long and short syllables to make its versifica- 
tion strike the ear without the assistance of rhyme. 

12. Double Rhymes have the first syllable emphatic, the 
second unemphatic. They are less easy to find, and are 
therefore less common, than single rhymes. The words 
property and liberty do not rhyme, because the chiming dis- 
syllabic terminations have no emphasis. 

When a convenient double rhyme occurs in Iambic or 
Anapestic verse, they are by poetic licence allowed to avail 
themselves of it, by assuming the additional short syllable, 
which is not supposed to vitiate or alter the metre. 

When double rhymes are found to be very difficult or 
troublesome in Trochaic verse, it is allowable to assume an 
additional long syllable, by which the rhymes become single, 
and consequently more easy. 

13. Triple Rhymes require the first syllable to be emphatic; 
the second and third syllables are unemphatic. They are 
obviously less easy to find than double or single rhymes, and 
this perhaps is a reason why Dactyls are seldom used at the 
end of a verse. The words literary and itinerary do not 
rhyme, because the termination erary is entirely unemphatic. 

14. English Rythms are constituted by a regular disposition 
of emphatic and unemphatic syllables, Long syllables are 
often emphatic and short ones unemphatic, but not always so. 
The Greek and Latin metres, on the contrary, depend on 
quantity, that is, on the length and shortness of syllables, and 
not on syllabic emphasis and remission. The true pronun- 
ciation of these ancient languages has been long lost, but the 
loss is not of much consequence, at least to an English ear, as 



120 RULES OF VERSIFICATION. 

Greek and Latin verses are read with as much pleasure and 
satisfaction with syllabic emphasis as they could ever have 
been by attending to quantity *. 

Metrical emphasis should coincide with either the syllabic 
or else the rhetorical emphasis, and metrical remissions or 
pauses with the rhetorical pauses, otherwise the versification 
is imperfect. 

15. Long syllables are not all equally long, nor short ones 
all equally short; and the like observation holds with respect 
to emphatic and unemphatic syllables. Hence poets are at 
liberty to account many syllables long or short, emphatic or 
unempliatic, as it may suit their purpose, a circumstance which 
facilitates English versification. All monosyllables are em- 
phatic or unemphatic at pleasure, except the and a, which are 
always unemphatic unless in Hudibrastic poetry. A long 
syllable is said to be equal to two short ones. 

16. Nothing is more intolerable in verse than a perpetual 
recurrence of the same pauses, emphases, and rhymes, and 
nothing more agreeable to the ear than a frequent change of 
melody and cadence. 

Iambics frequently begin with a Trochee, and on assuming 
an additional short syllable at the close, they may be said to 
terminate with an Amphibrach. 

There may be reckoned upwards of thirty species of Heroic 
verse, formed by the substitution of Trochess, Dactyls, Ana- 
pests, and other feet, instead of Iambusses, or resulting from 
the various positions of the caesural pause. A Spondee and 
Pyrrhic together are equal to two Iambuses, or two Trochees, 
or to an Iambus and a Trochee together. In like manner may 
the other sorts of verse be varied. 

Anapestic verses almost always begin with an Iambus. 

Alternations of rhyme and metre, in stanzas or otherwise, are 
always pleasing. 

17. But variety is not to be too much affected. Neatness 
of style, as well as melody and metrical harmony, should seem 
to recommend the introduction of variety, whenever it is 
admitted into the texture of verse. 



* It seems probable that the ancients did not read but recited their verses much 
in the same way that the Litany and some other parts of the Church service are 
performed iu cathedrals. Some inferior examples of this ancient mode of recita- 
tion may be found in the streets of every great town, as in the Cries of London. 



PRONUNCIATION. 12 1 



II. DEFINITIONS, 



1. Pronunciation is the last part of Grammar, and it teaches 
the manner of articulating or sounding the words of a lan- 
guage. There is a distinct kind of pronunciation which 
belongs to, and is the last part of Rhetoric or Oratory, and 
which, however nearly it may be allied to Grammatical Pro- 
nunciation, ought not to be confounded with it. The Rhe- 
torical kind teaches the graces of delivery, so as most effec- 
tually to touch and move the hearers. 

*2. The true or standard pronunciation of any country is 
that which prevails amongst the best educated of its inhabi- 
tants, especially in the metropolis. It may be considered as 
a compound of the two sorts of pronunciation already distin- 
guished, namely, of a subdued kind of rhetorical pronuncia- 
tion, together with a full measure of grammatical propriety. 

3. Grammatical Pronunciation is applicable to the right 
reading of prose or verse; it regulates the quantity and 
emphasis of syllables; and the emphasis, accent, and tone of 
the voice in uttering sentences. 

4. Quantity, as it regards metre, has been styled the dis- 
tinction of syllables into long and short, or emphatic and 
unemphatic. But as it respects accent, quantity distinguishes 
the sounds of the vowels into kinds, whereof the denomina- 
tions long, short, full, slender, obtuse, acute, and mixed, do 
not of themselves convey an adequate idea, and which can be 
known only by the hearing. 

5. Syllabic Emphasis, commonly but improperly called 
Accent, is a peculiar stress or force of the voice, belonging to 
all words of two or more syllables, which rests chiefly on one 
letter, whether vowel or consonant, and which serves to render 
language harmonious, and simple in its derivations. 

6. Rhetorical Emphasis, commonly and simply styled 
Emphasis, is that peculiar force or stress of the voice on the 
more important words of a discourse, which serves to excite 
the attention and direct the judgement of the hearer. 

7. Tones are certain modulations of the voice corresponding 
with the affections or emotions of the mind excited by the 
discourse, or suitable to it, as love, hatred, joy, sorrow, hope, 
fear, anger, gratitude, &c. 

8. Cadence is a peculiar inflexion of the voice, which 
admonishes the hearer that a sentence or clause is about to be 
ended ; or that a verse, or that part of a verse which is inter- 
cepted between two caesuras, is about to be completed. 

A deficiency of cadence is termed monotony, and a super- 
fluity affectation, but something of emphasis, accent, and tone 
is included in each. The fault of monotony cannot be 



122 PRONUNCIATION. 

cured, where there is wanted an ear or taste for music; and 
affectation can be destroyed only by shaking the foundation 
of ignorance, vanity, and hypocrisy, on which it rests. 

9. Pauses are rests or cessations of the voice, necessary in 
the first place for respiration, but extremely useful in the 
second place for distinguishing readily between sentences, and 
between the constituent parts of a long sentence. 

A Pause at the end of a verse is called ajinal pause, and any 
where in the middle of a verse it is called a c&sural pause, or 
simply a c&sura. 

A Pause longer than usual before a sentence of great weight 
or moment is called rather oddly an emphatic pause. 

10. Accent is that peculiarity of pronunciation which 
belongs to the languages of different countries, and which 
serves to distinguish also between the language of one pro- 
vince and that another of the same country. Thus we speak 
of the English, Irish, Scotch, and French Accents. Provincial 
language is also denoted by the term Dialect, but this refers 
particularly to words and phrases. 

Accent, in the strictest sense, means a certain melody of 
the voice in speaking suitable to the sentence delivered, and 
agreeing with the customary mode of utterance in any 
country. In a general sense it is nearly synonimous with 
pronunciation, and implies every thing relating to ft, as 
quantity, emphasis, tone, melody, and cadence. The subject 
of Accent in the strictest sense has never been duly consi- 
dered in the language of any country, but, in the loose or 
general sense several observations have been made upon it. 

rules. 

I. If a right pronunciation pleases the ear, and assists the 
mind of the hearer in comprehending and judging aright of 
the subject of discourse, it is clear that the speaker himself, 
in order to be qualified to deliver his discourse aright, must 
understand the subject, as well as be capable of pronouncing 
well. 

11. The sounds of the English vowels and consonants can 
be learnt only by the ear, but the learning will be greatly 
facilitated by the enumeration of them, given in Table II. 
page 3. The following rules will also be useful. 

!. The final e lengthens the sound of the foregoing vowel, 
as in can, cane, rob, robe, tun, tune. The final e, in words 
ending in re, is sounded before the r like u, as massacre, 
massacur-, lucre, lucur—%. The Latin Diphthongs &, a, are 
sounded like e, as Mtna, Etna ; ozconomy, economy, but at the 
end of words oe sounds like 0, as in toe, foe. — S. The English 
improper diphthongs, ea, eo, eu, ue, sound only the e and u, as 



PRONUNCIATION. 123 

tea or te; feoffee, feffee; due or du ; though sometimes eo and 
ea are pronounced like ee, as in people, speak. — 4. Sometimes 
the diphthong ie is pronounced like ee, as in deling, Jit Id; and, 
at the end of words, always like y, as in die, lie, and ei is 
pronounced like ee in deceit, and like «i in reign. — 5 The 
triphthong eau is pronounced like o, in beau and jet d'eau; 
and ?>w sounds like u, in /ie«, adieu — 6. The sound of c is 
hard before the vowels a, o, u, as in call, cold, cup ; also some- 
times before h, as in chart, choler; and before / and r, as in 
clear, creep. It is otherwise generally soft, as in city, cell, 
cyder, child.— 7. In French words ch is sounded like sh, as in 
chagrin, machine-, and sometimes like qu, as in choir, — S. The 
sound of g is hard before a, o, u, I, r, as in gall, go, gum, glean, 
grope: also before ui, as guilt, guild; and before h, as in 
ghost; sometimes before i, as in gibbous, gibberish. It is also 
generally hard before e, as in gef, geld, &c. ; but soft in many 
words derived from the Greek and Latin, as in geometry, 
genealogy, genus. Two g's are generally hard, as in dagger. The 
sound of g, when soft, is like that oi'j. — 9- In any part of a 
wordy ph sounds like^, as in philosophy. — 10. The sound of qu, 
at the end of French words, is like k, as in pique. — 11. The 
syllables ti and ci, if followed by a vowel, sound like shi, 
as in fiction, logician. — 12. When cc occurs before i, the 
former is hard, the latter soft, as in flaccid. — The letter p is 
not pronounced at the beginning of syllables before 5 and t, 
as in psalm, pt armies. 

In order to obviate or correct some of the growing errors of 
pronunciation, the following observations will also be found 
useful. 

1. The long vowels a and should always be fully sounded, 
as in fatal, father, water, noble. — 2. The short vowels e, i, 0, u, 
should never be indistinctly or improperly sounded, as by saying 
uvvent instead of e-vent, terruble instead of terrible, uppinion for 
opinion, nut for not, sing-e-lar for sing-u-lar. In two words, 
evil and devil, the i is suppressed in reading, but not so in 
Latin, which is improperly pronounced Lafn. — 3. It is wrong 
to suppress the sound of d orf, in the words and, London, of, 
which ought not to be pronounced an Lorion, o\ — 4, The 
letter h should never be sounded in words to which it does nut 
belong, nor in words where, according to approved custom, 
it is mute. The following, it is presumed, is a complete list 
of such words as begin with h mute ; heir, heiress, herb, 
herbage, honest, honesty, honestly, honour, honourable, honourably, 
hospital, hostler, hour, hourly, humble, humbles, humbly, humour, 
humourist, humorous, humorsome, humorously. And it is 
equally faulty to omit the sound of h in words to which it 
does belong. — £. The letter r has two sounds; one rough, 
used at the beginning of words or syllables; and the other 

r2 



124 PRONUNCIATION. 

smooth, in the middle or at the end of a syllable, as in rat, 
tar, tart. — 5. It is vulgar to confound the letters v and w, or to 
vitiate the terminations ow, oe, sts; as by saying, weal instead 
of veal, vine for wine, feller for fellow, vinder for window, 
potater for potatoe t postis or postis-es for posts. — 7. The parti- 
cipial termination ing ought never to be read in, unless it 
be preceded by another ing ; thus we say, speaking, writing, 
not speakin', writin ; and bringin', singin\ not bringing, singing. 
— 8. The participial termination ed is commonly in participles 
contracted into 'd, but in adjectives and adverbs it is not 
contracted; thus we say, that leam-ed man has confess-edly sur- 
passed them all. — 9. The termination el is contracted into 'I 
only in the following words, viz. shekel, weasel, ousel, nousel, 
navel, ravel, snivel, swivel, rivel, drivel, shrivel, shovel, grovel, 
hazel, drazel, nozel, which are sounded as if written shek'l, weas'l, 
ousl, &c. Otherwise, el is always to be fully sounded, as in 
parc-el, chap-el, nov-el, vess-el — 10. The termination en, when 
it is unemphatic, and not preceded by a liquid, drops the 
e in pronunciation, as in harden, heathen, heaven, which are 
sounded as if written hard'n, heath' n, heav '«; and so garden, 
gardener, burden, burdensome, are sounded gard'n, gardener, 
burdUn, burdensome. In fallen and stolen the t is also to be 
suppressed ; fall'n stoVn. — 11. There are some exceptions to 
the preceding rule, which retain the sound of the e, viz. 
sudden, kitchen, hyphen, chicken, ticken, jerken, aspen, paten, 
platen, marten, latten, patten, leaven, sloven. — 12. The termina- 
tion Hon or sion, always makes a distinct syllable ; thus nation 
is to be pronounced na-shun, not nash'n-— 13. Some Pronouns 
are susceptible of either a light or a grave pronunciation, as 





Light 


Grave 


my 


me 


migh 


mine 


min 


mine 


thy 


the 


thy 


you 


ye 


you 


your 


yur 


yure 



These words, when they are used antithetically or solemnly, 
require the grave sound ; the possessives also require it when 
they agree with the nominative to the verb, and you when it is 
a nominative. Otherwise they take the light sound. It is 
generally more polite to say mt than migh, and thy than the. — 
14. The verbs shall, would, could, should, are, have, are to be pro- 
nounced shal, woud, cou'd, should, arr, and haw, not shawl, 
wold, cold, air, and haive. — 15. The prepositions*/, to, for, from, 
by, may be sounded fully or shortly. It is better to give 
them the full sound before short and unemphatic syllables, 
and the short sound before long or emphatic syllables. When 



PRONUNCIATION. 325 

followed by him, her, it, them, or any personal pronoun, at 
the end of a sentence, they are to be pronounced fully. — 
16. It is deemed peculiarly elegant to interpose in the follow- 
ing words the short sound of e or y between the guttural and 
vowel sounds, viz. sky, kind, kirk, guide, gird, girt, girl, guise, 
guile, card, carp, carpenter, carpet, carve, carbuncle, carnal, 
cartridge, gard, and regard. — 17. It is also accounted elegant 
to soften or liquify the consonants d, t, s, and c soft, when 
they are followed by the long vowel i or u, and preceded by 
an emphatic syllable, as in Indian, educate, virtue, pronuncia- 
tion, which are pronounced In-ji-an, edjucate, virchew, pro- 
nunsheashun. Care, however, must be taken not to diminish 
the number of syllables belonging to the word — we must not 
say, Inj an , pronunshashun. — 18. Contractions in speaking are 
less frequent now than they were formerly, and less reputable. 
It is better to say cannot than can't, shall not than shan't, 
do not than don't. 

III. It is difficult, if not impossible, to subject the syllabic 
emphasis of words to particular rules, as they would be too 
numerous, and too much encumbered with exceptions. Yet 
it is useful to possess a few general rules ; as, that the root is 
more frequently emphatic than either the affix or prefix ; that 
a long syllable retains the emphasis rather than a short one; 
and that the seat of the emphasis in words of Saxon or 
English origin is near the beginning, but, in words of Latin or 
French extraction near the end. By expanding these obser- 
vations, and adding a few others, we succeed in obtaining a 
short system of rules. 

1. A long vowel, or a diphthong, makes a syllable naturally 
long; a short vowel followed by two consonants makes a 
syllable long by position. Two long syllables do not meet 
together in the same word, nor often more than two short 
ones. The same is true with respect to the meeting together 
of emphatic and unemphatic syllables. The words amen, 
direct, leap-year, sometimes, are exceptions. 

2. The syllabic emphasis, rests rather on a single letter, 
than on the whole syllable consisting of two or more letters. 

3. Monosyllables are naturally devoid of syllabic emphasis; 
but they are all susceptible of rhetorical emphasis, except the 
articles a, the. 

4. Dissyllables must be either Iambuses or Trochees; that 
is, the syllabic emphasis must rest on the latter or the former 
syllable. 

Words of two syllables that are formed by prefixing a 
syllable, have commonly the last syllable emphatic, as 
to bestir, to beset, to prefer. 

Words of two syllables that are formed by adding a termi- 
nation, have commonly the first syllable emphatic, as whiteness, 
graceful, lover* 



126 



PRONUNCIATION. 



Dissyllabic Verbs are generally Iambuses, and Nouns alike 
spelt are often Trochees ; as 



Absent 
An abstract 
An accent 
A cement 
A collect 
A conduct 
A conflict 
A concert 
A consort 
A contest 
A contract 
A convert 
A desert 



to absent 
to abstra'ct 
to accent 
to cement 
to collect 
to conduct 
to conflict 
to concert 
to consort 
to contest 
to contract 
to convert 
to desert 



An extract 


to extract 


Frequent 


tofrequent 


Incense 


to incense 


An object 


to object 


A present 


to present 


Produce - 


to produce 


A project 


fo project 


A rebel 


to rebel 


A record 


to record 


A subject 


to subject 


A torment 


to torment 


A transport 


to transport 


A triumph 


to triumph 



All dissyllables ending in age, ish, en, et, our, ow, y, le, or in 
c or ck, ter, er, are Iambuses; as cabbage, banish, hasten, 
prophet, honour, shadow, duty, battle, music, banter, baker; 
with a few exceptions, as allow, avow, endow, below, bestow. 
Many other dissyllables are lambusses ; especially those that 
end with a consonant and e mute, as abide, provide, elope; or 
with two consonants, as commend, condemn; or have a diph- 
thong in the last syllable, as bewail, conceal, array, applause; 
except some nouns in ain, as fountain, mountain, captain, 
curtain, 

5. Trisyllables are either dactyls, amphibrachs, or anapests. 
Many trisyllables are dactyls; as those in al and ous, in ce, 

ent, and ate; as animal, marvellous, maintenance, ornament, 
delicate; and those in y, le, re, and ude, as decency, audible, 
theatre, fortitude. 

But trisyllables in ce derived from iambuses, and such 
others as have the middle syllable long, are amphibrachs, as 
defiance, adherence, disciple, obeisance, intestate. And so are 
trisyllables ending in ator, as creator, spectator. 

Many trisyllables are anapests, or have only the last syllable 
emphatic; but these come chiefly from the Latin or French, 
as comprehend, acquiesce, ambuscade, magazine; or the}' are 
words formed by prefixing one or two short syllables to an 
Iambus or long syllable, as misbecome, superadd. 

6. Polysyllables, in general, retain the emphasis of the 
words from which they are derived, as conquerable, honourable, 
innumerable, arrogating, incontinently. 

In Polysyllables the terminations or, ion, ious, and uous, are 
immediately preceded by an emphatic syllable; as operator, 
admiration, litigious, incongruous. 

7. In all words whose penult is emphatic, ending with a 
long vowel, which precedes a single consonant, that vowel 
is long and open. But in the antepenult any vowel, excepting 



PRONUNCIATION. 127 

u, so situated, is short ; as decent, local, paper, delicate, dili- 
gence, fabulous. 

8. Some words admit of more than one emphasis; but 
secondary emphases are weaker than the primary. 

IV. The importance of what is called the rhetorical, but 
better verbal, emphasis, will appear from the following short 
question, to which no fewer than five answers may be 
returned, according to the five different positions of the verbal 
emphasis ; a Do you ride to town to-day ?" As, 1. Do you 
ride to town to-day ? No, I stay at home. 2. Do you ride to 
town to-day f No, my Brother is going. 3. Do you nrfe to 
town to-day? No, I think of walldng. 4. Do you ride to 
town to-day? No, I go a hunting. 5. Do you ride to town 
to-day P No, I stay until to-morrow, on account of the weather. 

The syllabic emphasis may, and commonly does, affect the 
rhetorical emphasis so as to conspire with or against it. They 
should, as far as possible, harmonize in serious discourse; but 
the effect of ridicule or burlesque is increased by their dis- 
union. 

The rhetorical emphasis may be augmented by making the 
voice to pause immediately before, or after, an emphatic sen- 
tence or clause. • * 

Antitheses require the rhetorical emphasis to be placed on 
the leading words that are contrasted with each other. 

Particles, that is Articles, Pronouns, Prepositions, Con- 
junctions, and Adverbs, very seldom admit of the rhetorical 
emphasis, and some of them never admit of it. And, for this 
reason, such words are generally deemed unfit to conclude a 
sentence, or to stand in situations where emphasis is required. 

Too many rhetorical emphases in a discourse are worse 
than too few, in the same way that excessive modesty is 
better than affectation, both in intrinsic value, and ss calcu- 
lated to please. 

V. The regulation of the tones of the human voice belongs 
rather to Oratory, or Rhetoric, than to Grammar. Yet some 
part of the subject may be accounted grammatical. For to 
speak on all subjects with equal indifference of voice or tone, 
whether they be grave or gay, plaintive, compassionate, or 
congratulatory, would argue insensibility in the speaker. Na- 
ture is here the best grammarian. — Rhetorical tones are often 
delusive. They may bespeak more good qualities than the 
speaker possesses, and promise more than he is able, or willing, 
to perform. They may indicate much courage, devotion, 
piety, benevolence, and friendship, and yet sometimes mask 
the opposite evil qualities of cowardise, treachery, wickedness, 
and fraud. 

VI. Cadences in prose are signs to the ear, as points or 
stops are to the eye, by which the mind apprehends the con- 



128 PRONUNCIATION. 

struction of sentences, and judges of the relation of words to 
each other. Of Cadences there are different kinds, as affirm- 
ative or indicative, imperative, interrogative, subjunctive, 
optative, indefinite, &c. as well as major and minor. These 
can be learnt only by the ear. Cadences may also be dis- 
tinguished into rising, falling, and circumflex. 

A Verse may contain one, two, three, or four Cadences. 

Poetical Cadences should be at once metrical and senten- 
tial. Two or more similar cadences coming together effect 
a pleasing harmony. 

VII. Pauses, or suppressions of the voice are regulated in 
duration partly by the cadences, or grammatical construc- 
tion, of the sentence, partly by the fluency and pathos of the 
discourse, and partly by the harshness or mellowness of the 
sounds of the consonants. Punctuation indicates generally 
the proper pauses — but yet sometimes the pauses must be 
more frequent, and at other times less so, than what is shewn 
by the points. 

VIII. There is in every country an indescribable peculiarity 
of emphasis, cadence, and tone, styled Accent, which natives 
and foreigners readily discern in each other, but do not com- 
monly acknowledge to exist amongst themselves. This inde- 
scribable something might perhaps be explained by musical 
notation; but no other way exists of representing it. 

The powers of the letters of the alphabet are not the same 
in any two languages — for although the consonants of differ- 
ent languages do, in general, assimilate tolerably well toge- 
ther, yet the vowels and diphthongs often disagree in what is 
vaguely styled quantity, and sometimes quality, and the 
syllabic emphasis varies in different places. 

The English vowels have each a greater variety of sound 
than the vowels of any other language. Not only foreigners, 
but the Scotch and Irish, are with difficulty kept in mind of 
this variety; so that their uniform and peculiar way of pro- 
nunciation according to the usuage of their native language 
or dialect, occasions a great part of the brogue or accent with 
which they are charged. And not only so, but through affec- 
tation of change, people sometimes spoil or make worse that 
which was originally right or nearly so, supposing that in all 
cases that must be either right or wrong which they have 
found to be so in one or two particular cases. 

In order to cure any provincialism of pronunciation, we 
would recommend 

1st. To form an acquaintance with the sounds of the 
vowels in all their varieties. 

2dly, To exemplify these sounds, especially in words of 
one syllable. 



PRONUNCIATION. 



129 



3dly, To change nothing provincial, without knowing cer- 
tainly the difference between the right and wrong way of 
pronunciation. 

A short List of Words in which either the Irish or Scotch 
Pronunciation differs from the English. 



Letters. 


heard in 


pronounced improperly , as if numbered. 


a 


name 


fatal, patron, matron 




fall 


quantity, squadron, wrath 




far 


gape, calf, father, rather, farewel, qualm, psalm 




fit 


catch, chapel, gather, habit, quash, satan, waft, wax 


e 


me 


please, reach, sea, tea; sincere, supreme, tenure, 
tenable; leisure, deceit 




yJs 


bear, pear, wear, tear, swear; great, prey, convey 




met 


chearful, fearful, zealous; search, wherefore, there- 
fore ; bad, fad, rad, for bed, fed, red 


i 


fine 


Michael 




pin 






fin 


decision, vision, malicious; bed, ltd, red, for bid, 
lid, rid 





n6 


coarse, course, c&urt, source; strive, drove, rode, 
strode, shone 




prove 


foot 




for 


n$t, lSdge, door, floor 




l6ve 




u 


mute 






bull 


bull, bush, pull, push, pulpit, pudding, put, cushion, 




tub 


butcher 



To which may be added dioth for drought, cowld for cdld, bowld 
for bdld, breadth for breadth, length for length, strength for strength, 
schism for sc/tism, ing-in for 6ni6n, cla-mour for ciam-our, endeavour 
for endeav-our, mischie-vous for mischlev-ous. 

The Welch mistake the sounds of eight hard consonants, or con- 
found them with the corresponding soft sounds; viz. b p, d t, th th, 
g c or k, j ch, s or z ce or sh, v f\ as big pick, blood phot, these thece, 
jail, chail, azure aysher, \\xtuefirtue. 



END, 



Scripture Chronology , from the Creation to the Flood, 1656 Years. 



Years 


Years 
























of the 


before 


1 


j£ 




















World. 


Flood. 


< 


CO 


co 
O 
P 


c 


. 














130 


1526 


130 


born 


\ 


c 


CD 














235 


1421 


235 


105 


born 


\ 


etf 

2 














325 


1331 


325 


195 


90 


)orn 




"3 

a 

33 

•-» 1 


-a 










395 


1261 


395 


265 


160 


70 


bom 


\ s 


en 








460 


1196 


460 


330 


225 


135 


65 


v 1 

oorn 




3 

x\ 
a; 

s 


u 

CD 






622 


1034 


622 


492 


385 


297 


22 7 


162 I 


Dorn 


X 


£ 


~s 




687 


969 


687 


557 


452 


362 


292 


227 


65 


born 


X. 


o 




874 


782 


874 


744 


639 


549 


479 


414 


252 


187 


born 


\ 


B 

Xi 

< 


930 


726 


930 


800 


695 


605 


535 


470 


308 


243 


56 


1 


1 

987 


669 


57 


857 


752 


662 


592 


527 


365 


300 


113 






1042 


614 


112 


912 


807 


717 


647 


582 


55 


355 


168 






1056 


600 


126 


14 


821 


731 


661 


596 


69 


369 


182 


born 




1140 


516 


210 


98 


905 


815 


745 


680 


153 


453 


266 


84 




1154 


502 


224 


112 


14 


829 


759 


694 


167 


467 


280 


98 




| 1235 


421 


305 


193 


95 


910 


840 


775 


248 


548 


361 


179 




j 1290 


366 


360 


248 


150 


55 


895 


830 


305 


600 


416 


234 




1422 


234 


592 


380 


282 


18? 


132 


962 


435 


735 


543 


366 




1558 


98 


628 


516 


418 


323 


268 


136 


571 


871 


684 


502 


born 


1651 


5 


721 


60? 


Sll 


416 


361 


229 


664 


964 


777 


595 


93 


i 1656 





7 C 46 


6H 


516 


421 


366 


234 


669 


959 


U 


600 


98 


1 




""■" 


, ^— 


' 


*— -• 















Note 1. — That the world was created in spring appears probable from hence, that the Floed 
took place in spring, after 1656 years were ended, whether those years be reckoned altogether 
by nativities, or partly by the long life of Methuselah. 

Note 2. — There is nothing in ths laws of gravitation, nor any thiDg said in Scripture, to lead 
us to suppose that the years of the antedeluvian period were shorter than those of latter ages. 
The forms of speech in Scripture sometimes prophetically designate years by months, weeks, 
days, or hours, but never the reverse. 

Note 3. — The allotted period from the creation of the world until the final overthrow of the 
Jewish state seems to have been 4350 years, or nearly 365J X 12 years, intimated by 12 hour? of 
the diy, Matt' xx. 6 and 12; and Johnxi. g ; and by 12 years, Matt, ix.20; but this period was 
shortened {Matt. viii. 29.) for gracious purposes, {Matt. xxiv. 22,) by 65 years, or nearly 5£ X 12 
y«ars, making a period of 4285 years, not indeed widely different from the former 



Scripture Chronology, from the Flood to the giving of the Law 

882 Years. 



Years 
Of tin 
\\ orld. 


Year* 
of tin- 
Mood. 




4. 

98 


-r 
a 

X 

a 

"a. 

< 


m 

"re 
«0 


S3 

.a 




















1056 




600 


1658 


2 


602 


100 


ior'| 




W 


















1 


1693 


37 


637 


135 


35 


bon x s 


£ 


a 

01 
















1723 


67 


667 


165 


65 


30 born 


\ 


tf 
















1757 


101 


701 


199 


99 


64 


34 


)om 




CO 


© 
m 

9 


as 

m 


. 








1787 


131 


731 


229 


129 


94 


64 


30 


born 




% 


5 








1819 


163 


763 


261 


161 


126 


96 


62 


32 


bom 




H 


"5 








1849 


193 


793 


291 


191 


156 


126 


92 


62 


30 


jorn > 




< 


6 

OS 


o 




1878 


222 


822 


320 


220 


185 


155 


121 


91 


59 


29 


join 






— 


1996 


310 


940 


438 


339 


303 


273 


239 


209 


177 


147 


18 






•-9 


b 


1997 


341 


941 


439 


339 


304 


274 


""71 


210 


178 


148 


19 








*& 


2006 


350 


950 


448 


348 


313 


283 


10 


219 


1S7 


"IT 


28 










2008 


352 


2 


450 


350 


315 


285 


12 


221 


189 


n 


130 


bom 








2026 


370 


20 


468 


368 


333 


303 


30 


239 


207 


29 


148 


18 








2049 


393 


43 


491 


391 


356 


326 


53 


23J 


230 


52 


171 


50 








2063 


427 


77 


525 


425 


390 


360 


87 


571 


~34 


86 


206 


64 








2090 


440 


BO 


538 


488 


403 


373 


100 


701 


57 


99j 
lllj 
1291 
161 
171 


13 


97 








2108 


452 


i02 


550 


"lT 


415 


385 


112 


82j 


69 


25 


100 


born 






2126 

2156 
2168 


470 
502 
512 


120 
152 

162 


568 
«00 

R 

t 25l 


30 
62 
72 


433 

~32 

42 


403 
435 
445 


13(. 
162 
172 


100J 
1S2 
142 


87 
119 
129 


43 

75 
85 


118 

150 
160 


18 

50 
60 


born 




2183 


527 


177 


87 


57 


460 


187 


L 


144 


186 


100 


175 


75 


15 




2187 


531 


181 


H 


91 


61 


464 


191 


161 


148 


190 


104 


"~4 


79 


19 




2217 


561 


211 


59 


121 


91 


30 


221 


191 


178 


220 


134 


34 


109 


49 




2246 


590 


240 


88 


140 


120 


69 


250 


220 


207 


249 


163 


63 


138 


78 




2259 


603 


253 


101 


153 


133 


72 


263 


pa 

S 249 


220 


262 


176 


76 


151 


91 


born 


2275 


619 


26K 


117 


169 


149 


68 


279 


236 


278 


192 


92 


167 


107 


16 


2276 


620 


270 


»118 


170 


150 


89 


280 


|250 


237 


279 


193 


93 


168 


108 


17 


2288 


632 


282 


130 


182 


flci2 


101 
111 
[l£8 


292 


262 


249 


291 


205 


| 10ft 


180 


120 


29 


2298 


642 


292 


140 


192 


|l72 


302 


1272 


259 


301 


215 


115 


i io 


130 


39 


2315 


659 


309 


1157 


1209 


|l89 


319 


289 


276 


318 


232 


132 


I 27 


147 


56 


2369 


713 


363 


fell 


[263 


I 243 


H82 


373 


343 


330 


372 


286 


Si 86 


I 81 


Pol 


110 


2538 


882 


532 


ji380 


|l32 


|J412 


bi 


542 


|l2 


499 


541 


455 


poo 


U250 


J223J 


jj69J 



Explanation — In this Table, and the preceding, the first and last years of each Patriarch's life aie noted, 
together with the contemporaneous ages of the others, in different columns. The spaces enclosed by dark 
lines shew the years of decease of the Patriarchs respectively. 



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Scripture Chronology, from the giving of the Law by Moses to the 
Foundation of Solomon's Temple, 530 Years, 



Years 
of the 
World 



I 2533 



2578 
2588 

2630 

2670 

2750 
2790 
2830 
2833 
2856 
2878 
2884 
2891 
2901 
2909 
2929 
2969 
2985 
3025 
3065 
3068 



Years 
befo re 
Cnrist 



1677 
1637 
1627 

1585 

1545 

1465 
1420 
1385 
1382 
1359 
1337 
1331 
1324 
1314 
1306 
1286 
1246 
1230 
1190 
1150 
1147 



Judges, &c. of Israel. 



Law given* 

Yean. 

Moses in the Wilderness / 40 



Joshua' swars,&c. until \ 
the land was divided S 



Joshua, Eleazar, and > 
the Elders > / 

Othniel (Caleb's ne-> 
phew and son in law $ 

Ehud 

Deborah 

Gideon 

Abimelech 

Tolah • 

Jair {Judges xi. 26) 

Jephthah 

Ibzan 

Elon 

Abdon 

Sampson 

Eli-... 

Samuel (Acts xiii. 20)- « 

Saul (Acts xiii. 21) •••• 

David (1 Kingsii. 11) 

Solomon (1 Kings vi. 1) 



no 

42 

40 

80 
40 
40 

3 
23 
22 

6 

7 
10 

8 
20 
40 

w 

40 

40 

V 3 



From the Law to the Temple- '530 



Proof 
Periods 



Years. 
40 



300 



447 



480 



Isratlitish Servitudes. 



Yers . 
Mesopotamia™ . • 8 



Moabites 



Cunaanites 
Midianites 



Philistines aad > 1R 
Ammonites • J 



Philistines 



Note 1. — It hence appears that the periods of the Semitudes are included, according to Scripture 
within those of the Judges. Our Commentators have, therefore, erred greatly in excluding them. • 

Note 2. — As hnoch was translated to heaven about 666 years before the destruction of the old 
world by the flood, so about the yea? of the world 2940, or nearly 666 years before the Babylonish 
captivity, Samuel being a child, probably 7 or 8 years old, the captivity of Judah was foretold, under 
the type of the destruction that was to befal Eli's house. Compare 1 Sam. iii 3: with 2 Kings, xxi. 12. 

Note 3.— The sabbatical years tended much, until they fell into disuse in the 41st year of Solomon's 
reign, to preserve the Chronology of the sacred records of Scripture. These years appear to have 
fallen on the 7, 14, 21, 28, 85, 42, 49, 50,57, 64, 71, 7S, 85, 92, 99,and 100th of each century. 



Scripture Chronology, during the Times of Solomon's Temple^ 
536 Years. 



Years 
of the 
World 



3066 
3106 
3136 
3146 
3163 
3166 
3193 
3234 
3259 
3283 
3291 
3292 
3298 
3338 
3367 
3409 

3461 
3476 
3491 
3520 
3575 
3578 
3609 
3612 
3682 



Years 
before 
Christ 



1150 

1110 

1080 

1070 

1053 

1050 

1023 

982 

957 

933 

925 

924 

913 

878 

849 

807 

755 
740 
725 
696 
641 
638 
607 
604 
534 



Proof 
Periods 



70 

40 

57 

60 

87 

128 

153 

177 

185 

186 

192 

232 

261 

303 

355 
370 
385 
414 
469 
472 
503 
506 
70 



Kings of Judah. 



Solomon began to reign 

He reigned well 40 years 

badly 30 

Regency 10 

Rehoboam 17 

Abijani 3 

Regency 27 

Asa 41 

Jehosaphat »•-.. 25 

Regency - 24 

Jehoram 8 

Ahaziah 1 

Athaliah 6 

Jehoash 40 

Amaziah 29 

Regency, during the I 
successive minorities > 42 
qfVzziah fyAzariuh > 

Azariah 52 

Jotham 15 

Ahaz 13 

Hezekiah 29 

Manasseh 55 

Anion 3 

Josiah 31 

Beginning of Captivity 

End of Captivity 



Babylonian and Persian 
Chronology. 



Years 
B.C. 



Reigned 
Years. 



732 Nabonassar or 
Belesis • • . 



14 



730 Nadius 

725 Porus 

720 Jugoeus .... 
708 Mardoc Empad • 
703 Arkianus .... 
701 Interregnum • 
698 Belibus .... 
6g2 Apronadius • • > 
691 Regilibus • • • 
687 Mesessimordacus 
679 Interregnum • • 
666 Esarhaddon • • 
646 Saosduchiuus 
624 Chiniladanus - • 22 
605 Nabopollassar • • 19 
560 Xebuchadnezzar 45 
558 Erilmerodac • • 2 
554 Neriglissar ... 4 
537 Belshaezar • • • 17 
535 Darius Medus • 2 

528 Cyrus 7 

520 Cambyses ... 8 
484 Dar. Hystasp • • 36 
463 Xerxes ..... 21 
422 Artax. Lougim • 41 
403 Dar. Nothus • • 10 
357 Artax. Mnem. • 46 

336 Ocbus 21 

334 Arogus 2 

330 Darius ..... 4 
3i2 Alexander Mag. . 8 

315 Philip 7 

303 Alexander JEgus 12 



Note 1.— From the year of the world 3106, when Solomon's idolatry began, to the year 36*12, the 
asra or" the Babylonish captivity, the Prophets reckon 490 years, besides 15 years, or thereabouts, 
which were added- to the duration of the Jewish state, as well as to the lite ofUezekiah, 2 Kings xx. 6. 
Ezekiel also reckons 390 fears from the beginnins of Solomon's idolatry until the 6th year of lleze- 
kiaii's reign. Compare 2 Kings xviii.9, and Ezek. iv 5. 

Note 2. — Josephus says that Solomon reigned 80 years in all; which means that 80 years had 
elapsed between the reigns of David and Rehoboam; and this was really the case,' according to the 
Prophets. ; Isa. xxiii. 15, and Ezek. iv. 6, as stated above. 

Note 3.— Asa eould hardly have been more than 4 years old when his father died; yet, after 
reigning 41 years, he died an old man, say between 70 and 80 years of age. 1 Kings xv. 23. We have 
therefore ample roam to insert a Regency of 27 years, at the end of which Asa, being of manly age, 
put an end to his Grandmother Maacha's Regency, on account-of hex idolatry. 1 Kings xv. 13. 



Scripture Chronology, during the Times of Solomon's Temple. 



Yeais 
of the 
World 



3066 
3106 
3136 
3146 
3168 
3193 
3195 
3-218 
3219 
3230 
3251 
8252 
3280 
3292 
3320 
3337 
S342 
3358 
3383 
3424 
3446 
3447 
3448 
3458 
3460 
3480 
3488 
3496 



Year> 
befbn 
Christ, 



Proof 
Periods 



Kings of Israel. 



1150 

1110 

1080 

1070 

1048 

1023 

1021 

998 

997 

986 

965 

964 

936 

924 

896 

879 

874 

858 

833 

792 

770 

769 

768 

758 

756 

736 

728 

720 



30 
40 
62 
87 
89 
112 
113 

iu 

145 
146 
174 
186 
214 
231 
236 
252 
277 
318 
340 
341 
342 
352 
354 
374 
382 
390 



Solomon began to reign 

He reigned well 40 years 

ii/n badly 30 

Regency 10 

Jereboam 22 

Regency 25 

Nadab 2 

Baasha 24 

Elan 2 

Zimri, Omri 12 

Ahab 22 

Ahaziah 1 

Regency 28 

Joram .......12 

Jehu 28 

Jehoahaz ♦ -» • • 17 

Regency • 5 

Jehoash 16 

Regency • » 25 

Jeroboam 41 

Interregnum 22. 

Zachariah, 6 months • • 1 
Shallutn, 1 month . • • • 1 

Menahem 10 

Pekahiah . • • 2 

Pekah 20 

Interregnum 8 

Hoshea • • * 8 



Assyrian and Median 
Chronology. 



Yetnrs Reigned 
B. C. Years. 


727 Tigl'ath Pileser 


•19 


713 Salman eser • • 


.14 


705 Senacherib • • 


• 8 


679 Esarhaddon • 


•26 


655 Dejoces • ♦ • 


•53 


633 Phraortes • • 


•22 


593 Cyaxeres • • • 


•40 


558 As ty ages • • • 


•35 


537 Cyaxeres or ? 
Darius m. .J 


21 


535 Ditto .... 


• 2 


528 Cyru3 .... 


• 7 



&c. 



Note 4.— Chronologers have confounded^ the 2d year of Jehoram king of Jud»h's life, (which 
coincided with the 13th year of his father Jehosbaphat's reign ) with the 2d year of his own reign, 
which did not commence until he. was 32 years old. During thi* interval of 30 years the prophet 
Klisha flourished, and many memorable events happened, as recorded in the first eight chapters of 
2 Kings, sufficient to fill up the period, and much mora than sufficient to fill up the time usually 
assigned to them. 

Note 5. — Jehu and his descendants governed Israel for four generations, that is 132 years, 
reckoning 33 y»ars to a generation. 2 Kings x 30. But in this period there was one minority or" 
5, and another of 25 years. So in, the kiuur.otn of Judrh, during the same period, there must have 
been a aouble minority of 42 years, or upwards of one generation, to make the years of the king- 
dom of Judah tally with those of the kingdom of Israel. This adds one generation to the number 
(13) enumerated between David and the Babylonish Captivity, and completes the number (14) stated 
in Matt. i. 17. 



Short Sketch of Jeivish, Grecian, and Roman Chronology, intended chiefly for 
the Times of the Second Temple at Jerusalem, 585 Years. 



Year* 


Ycar» 










| 


of tin 
Worlo 


before 

Christ 


Jewish Chiefs 




decks in Egypt. 


Greeks in Syria. 


Roman Chronology. 

) 


3682 
3735 
S765 


534 
481 

451 


r> ■ 1 


• 70 

• 53 






965 Troy taken. 
748 Rome built. 
508 Consuls chosen. 


uaniei 


Joakim . . . • 


• 30 






38' 
3845 
3877 
•3897 


411 
371 
339 
319 


kliasnib .... 

Joict'San ■ • • • 


• 40 

• 40 






454 Solon's Laws in- 
troduced. 
39O Gauls take Rome. 
367 Plebeian Consul 


Johanan • » » • 

jH'iuua. • • • • 


. 32 

• 20 


Tears Reigned 


Years Reigned 






3Q18 


298 


Onias 


•21 


B. C. years. 


B. C. years. 


elected. 


3927 


289 


Simon Justus • 


• 9 


282 Ptol Soter. • • • 20 


277 Seleucus Nicator 33 


293 Sun dial erected. 
281 Tarentiue war. 


3942 


274 


Eleazar .... 


•15 




258 Antiochus Soter lg 


274 Pyrrhus defeated. 


3968 


248 


Manasseh • • • 


•26 


244 Ptol. Philad. • • 38 
219 Ptol. Euergetes • 25 


243 Antiochus Theus 15 
223 Seleu. Callinicus 20 
220 Seleucus Craunus 3 


269 Silver first coined. 
264 First Punic var be- 
gins, aod lasts 33 


4001 


215 


Onias II. • • • 


•33 


202 Ptol. Philopator 17 


184 Antio. Magnus 36 
173 Seleu. Philopatoi 11 


years. 
235 Temple of Janus 


4023 


183 


Simon II. • « • 


•22 


178 Ptol. Epiphanes 24 


162 Antio. Epiphaues 11 
160 Antio. Eupator • 2 


shut. 
228 First Roman am- 


4043 


173 


Onias III. • • • 


•20 




148 Demetrius Soter 12 


bassador sent to 


4046 


170 


Jason 


• 3 




143 Alex. Balas • • 5 


Athens and Co- 


4050 


164 


Menflaus ■ • • 


• 6 




138 Demet. Nicator • 5 


rinth. 


4058 


158 


Judas Macabaeus 


• 6 


143 Ptol. Philometor 35 


128 Antio. Sidetes • 10 
123 Dem. Nic. ittrum 5 


218 Second Punic war 
begins, and lasts 


4075 


141 


Jonathan • • • 


•17 




121 Zebina - .... 2 


17 years 


4083 


133 


Simon 


• 8 


114 Ptol. Physcon • 29 


94 Antio. Grypus • 27 
90 Seleucus .... 4 


212 Marcellas takes 
Syracuse. 


4112 


104 


John Hircanus • 


.29 




81 Philip 9 


179 Numa's books 


4113 


103 


Aristobulus • • 


• 1 


78 Ptol. Lathurus ■ 36 


67 Tigranes .... 14 


found. 
168 Macedon subdued 


4140 


76 


Alex. Jannaeus • 


•27 






148 Third Punic war 


4149 


67 


Alexander • • • 


• 9 


66 Alexander • • • 12 




begins. 
146 Carthage destroyed 


4155 


61 


Aristobulus • « 


• 6 


49 Ptol. Auletes • 14 


62 Antiochus • • • 5 


136 Embassy sent to 
Egypt, Syria, and 


4178 


38 


Hyrcanus • • • 


•23 






Greece. 


4181 


35 
AiD. 


Antigonus • • • 


• 3 


34 Cleopatra • • . 15 




133 Pergamus taken. 
121 C. Gracchus killed 
ill Jugurthinewar be- 


42l5 


1 


Herod .... 


• 34 


Roman Emperors. 




gins, and lasts 5 


4625 


10 


Archelaus • ■ • 


•10 


Caesar Augustus 28 




years. 


4227 


12 


Coponius • • • 


• 2 


A.D. 




91 Social war begins, 


4230 


15 


Marc. Ambivius 


• 3 


14 Augustus • • • 44 

15 Tiberius .... 1 




and lasts 3 years. 
89 Mithridatic war 


4241 


26 


Valerius Gratus 


•11 






begins, and lasts 


4250 


35 


Christ crucified 




35 Tiberius • • • • 20 




26 years. 


4251 


36 


Pontius Pilate • 


• 10 


37 22 




88 Civil war between 
Marius and Sylla 


4256 


41 


Marcellus- • • • 


• 5 


41 Caligula .... 4 




begins, and lasts 


4259 


44 


Cuspiug Fad us • 
"iberius Alexanc 


• 3 






6 years. 


4261 


46 


er 2 






63 Catiline's conspi- 


4263 


43 


Cumayus • • • 


• 2 


54 Claudius • • • • 13 




racy detected. 
60 First Triumvirate. 


4270 


55 


Faelix ...... 


• 7 






46 Cato dies. 


4275 


60 


Portius Festus • 


• 5 




' 


44 Caesar murdered. 


4276 


61 


Albinus • • • • 


• 1 






43 Second Triumvi- 


4279 


64 


Gessius Florus • 


• 3 


68 Nero 14 

69 Galba 1 




rate. 
42 Battle of Philippi. 
31 Battle of Actium. 


4285 


70 


Jerusalem totally de- 
stroyed 


79 Vespasian • • • 10 
81 Titus 2 




27 Augustus emperor. 


4350 




Residue of the ' 
banished. 


Jem 


96 Domitian ■ • • 15 
98 Nerva .... 2 

117 Trajan 19 

138 Adriau • • • 21 
l6l Antoninus Pius 23 
180 M. Aurelius • • 19 
192 Commodus • • 12 
211 S^verus ••••!£ 










y , 




217 Caracalla • • 6 





Note 1. — Our Saviour was born in the year of the world 4215, about the autumnal equinox, six months after 
John Baptist: $nd he was \34{ years old when he died. There were five Passovers in the time of his public 
minis ry, mentioned in the New TesUTnent, as follows :— (1.) John ii. 13. — (2.) John iv. 35, four months after 
conversing with i^ie woman of Samaria. —(3.) Luke vi. 1, a few days before the dfccples rubbfd the ears of 
corn. — (4.) A little after the feeding Of the four thousand.— (5.) At the time of the crucifixion, — See Sir Isaac 
Newton's Remarks. 

Note2. — CJirJb^o'.ogers'rfst chiefly on human testimony in settling the particular times relative to th? 
second Temple; and "happily tlifey .differ very -little in tbeir computations in this part of history. 



LB My "04 



FINIS. 



TPluthiuer asd l.Brewis, Printers, Love-Lane, Eaitcheap. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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